China's Foreign Aid Training in Forestry and Wildlife Conservation: Assessment of Its Influence on CITES Implementation Outcomes Across Developing Countries with Evidence from CITES CoP20
Abstract:
China's expanding foreign aid architecture in forestry and wildlife conservation has emerged as a significant, yet analytically under-examined, variable in global conservation governance. Conventions on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is widely recognized as one of the most effective platforms. As one of the world's largest consumers of CITES-regulated commodities, China simultaneously positions itself as a capacity-building donor to developing nations through technical training, equipment supply, and South-South cooperation frameworks. This paper assesses the influence of China's foreign aid training programmes in forestry and wildlife conservation on CITES implementation outcomes across developing nations, drawing on documentary evidence from CITES 20th Conferences of the Parties (CoP20), held in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, in November–December 2025. A systematic qualitative analysis of grey literature, official policy documents, peer-reviewed studies, and CoP20 proceedings was undertaken to map China's training architecture, identify implementation pathways, and assess outcomes and limitations. Findings indicate that China's programmes have demonstrably strengthened enforcement capacity, equipment supply, and permit-control systems in partner nations, particularly in East Africa and Southeast Asia. However, the absence of governance conditionality, the structural contradiction between China's roles as both consumer and donor, and the limited depth of short-cycle training workshops constrain the net positive impact on CITES compliance outcomes. The CoP20 context further reveals a geopolitical realignment in which China's influence is expanding as the United States withdrew funding, creating both opportunities and risks for the trajectory of global wildlife conservation governance. Targeted reforms, including transparent outcome monitoring, demand reduction integration, and deeper multilateral partnership, are recommended to enhance the effectiveness of China's conservation aid footprint.References:
[1]. Laurance WF, Useche DC, Rendeiro J, Kalka M, Bradshaw CJ, Sloan SP, et
al. Averting biodiversity collapse in tropical forest protected areas. Nature.
2012;489(7415):290-4. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11318
[2]. CITES Secretariat. CITES CoP20 concludes with a clear roadmap to enhance
wildlife trade regulation and further strengthen implementation of the
Convention. CITES Official Press Release. Geneva; 2025. https://cites.org/eng/news/pr/cites-CoP20-concludes-with-clear-roadmap-to-enhance-wildlife-trade-regulation-2025
[3]. Wong RWY. Strengthening international legal cooperation to combat the
illegal wildlife trade between Southeast Asia and China. Front Ecol Evol.
2021;9:645427. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.645427
[4]. State Council of the People's Republic of China. China's international
development cooperation in the new era. White Paper. Beijing: State Council
Information Office; 2021. https://epaper.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202101/11/WS5ffb7d83a31099a23435323b.html
[5]. China Bamboo Research Center (CBRC). CITES Notification to the Parties
No. 2024/058: International seminar on wildlife conservation and CITES
implementation. Geneva: CITES Secretariat; 2024. https://cites.org/sites/default/files/notifications/E-Notif-2024-058.pdf
[6]. CITES Secretariat. Twentieth meeting of the Conference of the Parties
CoP20 official outcomes. Samarkand, Uzbekistan: CITES; 2025. https://cites.org/eng/cop/20
[7]. Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS). Landmark decisions at CITES CoP20
deliver historic safeguards for sharks and rays, okapi, Galápagos iguanas,
geckos, sloths, and other species. WCS Newsroom. 2025. https://newsroom.wcs.org/News-Releases/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/25693
[8].
Todd P. Making CITES great again? NRDC Expert Blog. 2025. https://www.nrdc.org/bio/paul-todd/making-cites-great-again
[9]. Bowen GA. Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qual Res
J. 2009;9(2):27-40. https://doi.org/10.3316/QRJ0902027
[10]. Hsieh HF, Shannon SE. Three approaches to qualitative content analysis.
Qual Health Res. 2005;15(9):1277-88. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687
[11]. China Bamboo Research Center (CBRC). CITES Notification to the Parties
No. 2025/064: International seminar on ecological civilisation and wildlife
conservation. Geneva: CITES Secretariat; 2025. https://cites.org/sites/default/files/notifications/E-Notif-2025-064.pdf
[12]. State Council of the People's Republic of China. China's foreign aid.
White Paper. Beijing: State Council Information Office; 2014. https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/white_paper/2014/08/23/content_281474982986592.htm
[13]. State Council of the People's Republic of China. China's international
development cooperation in the new era: Protecting biodiversity.
Chinadaily.com.cn. 2021. https://epaper.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202101/11/WS5ffb7d83a31099a23435323b.html
[14]. Li Y, Guo X, Jiang Z. Integrating and updating wildlife conservation in
China. Sci Bull. 2020;65(18):1549-51. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7430277
[15]. Sun Z, Liu Z, Liu J, Pan X. Wildlife conservation and management in
China: achievements, challenges and perspectives. Natl Sci Rev.
2021;8(7):nwab042. https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwab042
[16]. TRAFFIC. China-ASEAN wildlife enforcement network: inaugural technical
consultation meeting report. Cambridge: TRAFFIC International; 2012. https://www.traffic.org
[17]. IUCN. IUCN position paper for CITES CoP20. Gland: International Union
for Conservation of Nature; 2025. https://iucn.org/sites/default/files/2025-11/iucn-position-paper-for-cites-CoP20.pdf
[18]. Earth Negotiations Bulletin (ENB). Summary report of CITES CoP20, 23
November-5 December 2025. Winnipeg: International Institute for Sustainable
Development (IISD); 2025. https://enb.iisd.org/convention-international-trade-endangered-species-wild-fauna-flora-cites-CoP20-summary
[19]. Parida S. CITES CoP20: Global South drives critical changes and shapes
global wildlife trade policies. Down to Earth. 2025. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/wildlife-biodiversity/cites-CoP20-global-south-drives-critical-changes-and-shapes-global-wildlife-trade-policies
[20]. TRAFFIC. China fortifies anti-wildlife trafficking efforts at its
borders. Cambridge: TRAFFIC International; 2024. https://www.traffic.org/news/china-fortifies-anti-wildlife-trafficking-efforts-at-its-borders
[21]. Linder JM, Oates JF. The effectiveness of interventions to manage
international wildlife trade. Conserv Sci Pract. 2024:e13205. https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.13205
[22]. Zhou Z, Shi H, Wan X, Wu W, Jiang Z. Wildlife trade, consumption and
conservation awareness in southwest China. PLoS One. 2020;15(3):e0230773. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7088108
[23]. Ballard Brief. Illegal wildlife trade in China. Brigham Young University
Ballard Center for Social Impact; 2023. https://ballardbrief.byu.edu/issue-briefs/illegal-wildlife-trade-in-china
[24]. Wilson Center. Wild laws: China and its role in illicit wildlife trade.
Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars; 2016. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/wild-laws-china-and-its-role-illicit-wildlife-trade
[25]. Reality of Aid. On South-South cooperation: assessing its political
relevance and envisioning a future beyond technical cooperation. Philippines:
Reality of Aid Network; 2023. https://realityofaid.org/reality-check-ssc
[26]. Huang L, Wan X, Zhou Y, Zhou Z, Zhao Y. International cooperation for a
biodiverse future: opportunities and challenges under the Kunming-Montreal
Global Biodiversity Framework. Glob Ecol Conserv. 2025;57:e03396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2024.e03396
[27]. Waldron A, Justicia R, Smith L, Sanchez M. Explaining global patterns of
international aid for linked biodiversity conservation and development. World
Dev. 2012;46:123-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.12.018
[28]. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA). What
is South-South cooperation and why does it matter? New York: United Nations;
2019. https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/intergovernmental-coordination/south-south-cooperation-2019.html
[29]. Chang Y. China's legal response to trafficking in wild animals: the
relationship between international treaties and Chinese law. In: Wildlife
Trafficking: A Deconstruction of the Crime, Victims and Offenders. Berlin:
Springer; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-60756-5_7
[30]. Jiao Y, Lee TM. China's conservation strategy must reconcile its
contemporary wildlife use and trade practices. Front Ecol Evol. 2021;9:675400. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.675400
[31]. United States Department of State. 2021 END wildlife trafficking
strategic review. Washington, DC: Bureau of Oceans and International
Environmental and Scientific Affairs; 2021. https://www.state.gov/bureau-of-oceans-and-international-environmental-and-scientific-affairs/releases/2021/11/2021-end-wildlife-trafficking-strategic-review
[32]. CITES Secretariat. Closing remarks by CITES Secretary-General Ivonne
Higuero, CoP20. Samarkand: CITES; 2025. https://cites.org/eng/sg-statement/cites-CoP20-closing-remarks-2025
[33]. Wikipedia. Chinese foreign aid. Wikimedia Foundation; 2025. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_foreign_aid
[34]. World Animal Protection. Animal wins at CITES CoP20 bring hope for
species at risk. World Animal Protection; 2025. https://www.worldanimalprotection.org/latest/news/cites--CoP20
[35]. State Council of the People's Republic of China. China's foreign aid.
White Paper. Beijing: State Council Information Office; 2011. https://iq.china-embassy.gov.cn/ara/zt/zgzfbps/201206/t20120621_2518857.htm
[36]. UNDP Uzbekistan. Ahead of CITES CoP20: Central Asian countries unite for
resilient landscapes and big cat conservation. United Nations Development
Programme; 2025. https://www.undp.org/uzbekistan/press-releases/ahead-cites-CoP20-central-asian-countries-unite-resilient-landscapes-and-big-cat-conservation
[37]. China Biodiversity Conservation and Green Development Foundation.
China's biodiversity conservation strategy and action plan 2023-2030. China
Development Brief; 2024. https://chinadevelopmentbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/China-Biodiversity-Action-Plan.pdf
[38]. Blicharska M, Smithers RJ, Kothawala DN, Batary P, Varg JE, Norström A.
Biodiversity's contributions to sustainable development. Nat Sustain.
2021;2(12):1083-93. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0417-9
[39]. CITES Secretariat. Secretariat final recommendations on CoP20 species
proposals. Geneva: CITES; 2025. https://cites.org/eng/news/pr/cites-CoP20-species-listings-proposals-secretariat-final-recommendations-released-2025
[40]. Bräutigam DA, Knack S. Foreign aid, institutions, and governance in Sub-Saharan Africa. Econ Dev Cult Change. 2004;52(2):255-85. https://doi.org/10.1086/380592
