Abstract:

Access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food is vital to sustaining life and promoting good health. Seasonal variation in disease causing agents such as dietary heavy metals can negatively influence morbidity and mortality. The purpose of this study was to investigate the seasonal variation in lead, cadmium, manganese, copper, chromium, cobalt, nickel, and zinc in African Spinach a staple food in Nigeria. The method employed was atomic absorption spectrophotometry and the results indicates that the mean concentration of levels of Cd, Cu, Mn in the food crop increased during the rainy season while the mean concentration of Cr, Co, Pb, Ni, and Zinc were either higher or vary slightly during the dry season. With the exception of Cd and Co all other heavy metals were within maximum permissible limits set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives and the Agency for toxic substance disease registry (ATSDR), although slightly higher levels of lead were recorded in some dry seasons samples they still fell within permissible limits. Understanding the seasonal variation of heavy metal contamination in staple foods can possibly explain the seasonal variation in prevalence of some non communicable diseases, save lives and reduce healthcare costs.

Keywords: Dietary exposure, Heavy metal, Contamination, Vegetables, Food Additives.

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Abstract:

Background: Poor solid waste management is still a great challenge being faced by urban authorities in Uganda includingNansana Municipality where in particular there is still a challenge of indiscriminate and open dumping of solid waste along the streets that has led to other related health challenges currently affecting the Municipality.

Purpose: Assessing factors influencing solid waste management in Nansana Municipal division in order to provide stakeholders with information that would be used to design appropriate interventions towards proper solid waste management.

Methodology: A descriptive cross-sectional study design was used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data. Stratified cluster sampling procedure was used to obtain the households of respondents while the Purposive sampling was used to obtain the key informants.

Results: Majority of the respondents, 55.6 % (151/272) had moderate knowledge about solid waste, 29.6% (80/272) of the respondents had high knowledge on solid waste management. While 14.8% (40/272) had low knowledge on proper solid waste management.

73.5% (200/272) of the waste is generated in form of food remains while solid waste in form of plastics and raw vegetables compose 52.2% (142/272). 84.2% (229/272) store waste before disposing it off but only 40.2% (92/229) of them store it in refuse bins. Majority 82.2% (222/272) of the respondents were disposing off waste at the road side. Majority of the respondents, 91.5% (249/272) of the respondents were not engaged in segregating solid waste.

Keywords: solid waste, segregation, refuse bins, households.

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Abstract:

Background: Globally, success rate recorded for the treatment of drug-resistant TB remains low. About half of all patients with TB, often, do not complete their treatment schedule with consequent prolonged infectivity, drug resistance, relapse and death. Social determinants of health among several factors have been implicated as responsible for poor treatment outcomes.

Objective: This paper reviewed published empirical studies related to drug-resistant TB treatment outcomes and examined social factors that may explain the dynamics involved in treatment failures that are likely to be responsible for poor treatment outcomes among DR-TB patients.

Methodology: A review of empirical studies published in the available databases was conducted through a systematic search of articles indexed in Pub Med, Google Scholar and EMBASE databases. Pooled estimates of treatment success were computed and factors responsible were reported.

Results: The review revealed that DR-TB treatment success rate varied from between 34.5% to 78.4%. A total of 252 articles were identified through electronic search, 52 were duplicated while 16 were eligible and included in the review. Mainly, resistance to second line drugs, co-morbid conditions such as HIV, Diabetes Mellitus, male sex, older age, being underweight, positive sputum smear, presence of cavities in chest X-ray, longer duration of treatment, non-adherence, previous treatment, were frequently identified factors associated with poor treatment outcome in MDR-TB patients.

Conclusion: There was a dearth of studies involving social determinants in explaining the dynamics of poor treatment outcomes among DR-TB patients.

Keywords: Drug-resistance, Treatment Outcomes, Tuberculosis, Social determinants.

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Abstract:

Objective: This study sort to ascertain the levels of information need, health literacy, and preventive-health behaviour among individuals in a rural community of Ikenne Local Government area in Nigeria and determine most significantly predictor of preventive-health behaviour.

Methodology: This was a cross-sectional study that utilized interviewer-administered validated 52-item questionnaire for data collection. Measures were information need on 51-point rating scale, health literacy on 27-point, and preventive-health behaviour on 48-point reference scales respectively. Study subjects were 268 consenting individuals selected by a multistage sampling technique in a rural community of Ikenne Local Government area, Nigeria. Data analysis was by computations of means and standard deviations and test of associations to determination predictor of the outcome variable. All statistical tests were at 5% level of significance.

Results: Majority (67.2%) of participants were females with 63.8% reporting appreciable level of formal education. Mean age of respondents was 32.2±13.11 years. Level of acquired information was 25.7±5.65 with a prevalence of 50.4%, health literacy mean score was 14.97±4.23 with a prevalence of 55.4%, while mean score of preventive-health behaviour was 23.37±7.27 with a prevalence of 48.7%. All levels of variables measured were considered average scores. Regression analysis showed that preventive-health behaviour was significantly dependent on health literacy (β = 0.397; t=5.07; p<0.001), and level of acquired information (β= -0.211; t= -2.696; p<0.008).

Conclusion: The study concludes that levels of acquired information, health literacy, and preventive-health behaviour observed are low. The observed high information-deficit would explain the observed inadequate preventive-health behaviour reported in the study.

Keywords: Health literacy, Information need, health-choices, Preventive-health practices.

References:

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Abstract:

Since the discovery of HIV/AIDS, its morbidity and mortality in Nigeria has risen proportionately, posing significant threats to population health and survival. The increased pressures on the existing health infrastructure and financial burden have negative consequences on the social and economic development of the nation. Several surveys and available records indicate that the main route of over 65% infection with HIV is unprotected and illicit sexual activities, making the sexually active segment the Most at Risk Population (MARP_S). Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT) and administration of Anti-Retroviral to boost the immunity of PLWH offers a relief in the management of HIV, Research on post VCT and ART sexual activities are relatively rare in Nigeria. The study examined HIV+ Status history and access to ART among PLWHIV in Ondo State, Nigeria. Data were obtained using a formal questionnaire, from a sample 315 PLWHIV accessing ART in the selected health facilities in Ikare Akoko, Ondo, Owo, Ilaje, Akure and Okitipupa. The instrument was divided into socio-demographic characteristics, HIV+ Status history, Access to ART and Post ART Sexual behaviour. Data were analyzed using SPSS at the univariate and bivariate levels. Findings revealed that about 70% confirmed their HIV+ Status ≥ 3 years prior to the survey, the mean period in years of access to ART was 2.2 years, about 90% ever engaged in unprotected sexual intercourse and the mean number of sexual partners was 2. Some social, political and economic factors determined ease of access to ART. The need to remove all social and economic impediments to access to ART services and intensified post ART counseling will address the increase in secondary infection with HIV among PLWH.

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Abstract:

Substance Use Disorder (SUD) is a growing problem which has an adverse impact on individuals, families and entire societies. The present literature review is part of a study the purpose of which is to identify the possible effect of drug rehabilitation on building Self-Esteem among SUD clients in recovery. The literature review aims to shed light on various aspects related to SUD, and to examine what has already been published in a body of studies examining the relationship between low Self-Esteem and SUD. In the cross-sectional study affiliated with the literature review, a convenience sample of residents of four drug rehabilitation facilities in Cairo Egypt, under Freedom Drug Rehabilitation Program, was approached in order to solicit volunteers to participate in the study. A demographic sheet was used to collect the personal information of participants; additionally, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1989) was administered to measure the participants’ levels of Self-Esteem, where each participant has spent a different time span in rehabilitation.

Keywords: Substance Use Disorder, Self-Esteem, Rehabilitation, Recovery.

References:

[1].   Akhter, A. (2013). Relationship between Substance Use and Self-Esteem. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 4, Issue 2. Retrieved from:

https://www.ijser.org/researchpaper/Relationship-between-SelfEsteem-and-Substance-Use.pdf.

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[3].   Alcoholism and Family (2018). Marital Problems. American Addiction Centers. Retrieved from: https://americanaddictioncenters.org/alcoholism-treatment/family-marital-problems/.

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[6].   Jensen, Sara J. (2011). The impact of self-esteem on substance abuse among emerging adulthood (Doctoral dissertation, Pacific University). Retrieved from: https://commons.pacificu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1419&context=spp.

[7].   Khajehdaluee, M, Zavar, A, Alidoust, M & Razieh Pourandi, R. (2013). The Relation of Self-Esteem and Illegal Drug Usage in High School Students. Iran Red Cres Med J. 15(11). Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261521638_The_Relation_of_Self Esteem_and_Illegal_Drug_Usage_in_High_School_Students.

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https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3928/15394492-20080301-05.

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Abstract:

Background of the study: Snakebite is one of the devastating NTDs, the outcome of its management depends on the health-seeking behavior of the victims. There are many factors that influence healthcare seeking behavior in general, which of these factors that influence the health-seeking behavior of snakebite victims in communities of Kaltungo local government area is not clearly known.

Aim: The aim of this study is to assess predisposing factors to snakebite, and the health-seeking behavior of the snakebite victims in kaltungo LGA, Gombe.

Methodology: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted among 398 participants in a community of Kaltungo local government area. Pre-tested and standardized questionnaires were used to obtain relevant information by trained research assistants.

Result: Visits to traditional healers (48%) was most common source of healthcare sought after snakebite. This was followed by visits to hospital (41.7%), spiritual healers (4.8%) and Chemist (5.5%). About a third (33.2%) of the respondents considered treatment effectiveness as the most important factor affecting health-seeking behaviour. This was followed by affordability (20.9%), proximity (11.8%), relative cost of treatment (10.8%) and service availability (6.0%). Educational level (X² = 7.584, p=0.05) is significantly associated with seeking healthcare from formal source

Conclusion: Appropriate health-seeking behaviour among snakebite victims was found to be high among the educated. Thus, those with lower levels of education need to be targeted during health education program to improve health-seeking behaviour among snakebite victims. In addition, health insurance schemes should be extended to cover more of the population.

Keywords: health-seeking; behaviour; neglected tropical diseases; snakebite victims; outcome; rural.

References:

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[2].   Alirol E., Sharma S.K., Bawaskar H.S., Kuch U., Chappuis F., 2010, Snake Bite in South Asia : A Review, Plos Negl Trop Dis 4(1): e603.

[3].   Chippaux J., 2017, Snakebite envenomation turns again into a neglected tropical disease!. Chippaux Journal of Venomours Animals and Toxins including tropical Diseases , 23(:38). DOI 10.1186/s40409-017-0127-6.

[4].   Ali K., Pathak I., 2017, Knowledge , Attitude and Practice regarding Snakes and Snakebite among Interns. Indian Journal of Forensic and Community Medicine, 4(:229–31). DOI: 10.18231/2394-6776.2017.0049.

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[6].   Adamu H., Yusuf A., Inalegwu C.U., Sufi R.A., Adamu A.N., 2018, Factors influencing health ‑ seeking behavior of health workers in a Tertiary Health Institution in Sokoto , Northwest Nigeria, Sahel Medical Journal, 21(3), Available: http://www.smjonline.org.

[7].   Iliyasu G., Tiamiyu A.B., Daiyab F.M., Tambuwal S.H., Habib Z.G., Habib A. G., 2015, Effect of distance and delay in access to care on outcome of snakebite in rural north-eastern Nigeria, Rural Remote Health, 15(4), Available: http://www.rrh.org.au.

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[9].   Mondal R.N., Chowdhury F.R., Rani M., Mohammad N., Islam M., Haque M.A., et al. 2012, Pre-hospital and Hospital Management Practices and Circumstances Behind Venomous Snakebite in Northwestern Part of Bangladesh.,:18–21.

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Abstract:

The current Social Health Insurance (SHI) model as implemented in Zambia has focused on those in formal employment. This may not favor the SHI model as currently implemented in the Zambian health sector due to extremely low proportion of those employed in the formal sector especially that the current model does not include financial contribution from the informal sector. The paper therefore conducts a systematic review of factors that would be associated with sustainable prepayment in the informal sector. The study was a quantitative cross-sectional study. Multivariate logistic regression was performed to identify factors associated with sustainable prepayment. A total of 426 respondents were interviewed in the study and 56.8 percent were female and 43.2 percent were female. The study revealed that 37.1 percent of respondents supported the idea of making contributions to raise funds for health. 75 percent of those interviewed disagreed that the monthly premium was a good way to collect contributions. The results of the multivariate analysis found that showed that from the factors studied, the one that were associated with sustainable prepayment of health services were higher number of children(OR,0.1;p<0.05),monthly income above 1000 (OR,0.1;p<0.05),monthly expenditure on health needs above K1000(OR,37.6; p<0.05)and nature of business. Those in the nonfood business were more likely to sustainably prepay than those in food business (OR, 2.2; p<0.05). The study recommended expanded coverage through involvement of local and revenue authorities in the collection of levies and reducing high premium costs associated with insurance contributions.

Keywords: informal sector; health prepayment; insurance; contributory; non-contributory.

References:

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[17].  Zambia Labor Force report, 2012, Informal financial transactions and monetary policy in low-income countries: Interpolated informal credit and interest rates in Malawi. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, [S.l.], v. 21, n. 1, p. 14 pages, apr. 2018. ISSN 2222-3436.

Abstract:

Background: Fall represents a major public health problem among older adults in Nigeria. There is a need for information on the prevalence and the risk factors of fall to ascertain the magnitude of the problem among the elderly in Nigeria.

Objective: To determine the prevalence and factors associated with falls among older adults in Nigerian Urban Community.

Methodology: The study was conducted among older adults in a Nigerian Urban Community. A multi-stage stratified sampling method was used to select persons aged 60 years and above in Ilorin Metropolis, North Central Nigeria.

Result: Falls were reported by 24.2% (prevalence) of the sample (n=1750). The prevalence of falls was 18.6% in males and 25.2 % in females. Among fallers, females were more likely than males to sustain injuries, including fractures (46.8% vs. 33.7%; p < 0.05). Moreover, a gradual and linear increase in the prevalence of falls was seen as the number of risk factors increased. In the multivariate model, women, subjects with cognitive impairment, those reporting urinary incontinence, and those being physically active during the previous year were found to be independently associated with increased risk of falling among older adults.

Conclusion: The present study identified potential risk factors for falls in a representative pop­ulation-based sample of older adults in a Nigerian Urban Community. It is therefore recommended that these risk factors should be addressed in public health policies through awareness and fall prevention programme. The fall prevention program must focus on females and those with chronic health conditions.

Keywords: Falls; Prevalence; Risk Factors; Older persons; Nigeria.

References:

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Abstract:

It is estimated that 3% and 4% of Rwandans living with hepatitis B and C respectively. Both HBV and HCV are more infectious than HIV and untreated chronic hepatitis B and C infection can result in liver cirrhosis and liver cancer. Despite to severity of these diseases numerous challenges exist for effective management of chronic HBV and HCV infections, particularly in resource-limited regions. The aim of this study was to explore the treatment of hepatitis B and C infection as well as challenges related to its treatment at Ruli District Hospital.

A non-experimental quantitative descriptive cross-sectional was used and sampling strategy was total population sampling (TPS).

Of all participants 22% to 68.3% and 22% to 61% reported that people in risk groups are screened routinely for HBV and HCV respectively, the percentage vary according to each specific category. Lamivudine and Tenofovir were selected by the majority 58.5% and 61% respectively, as very commonly used drugs for HBV while most of participants reported that they’re not sure about the usage of treatment on WHO essential list for HCV. Numeral challenges and barriers for the treatment of HBV and HCV were found; these include difficulties to reach specialized care, lack of Accurate Statistics Regarding the Burden of HBV and HCV Infections, low public Awareness and Education and Limited knowledge of health care providers on viral hepatitis B/C.

There are still numerals challenges to be addressed for improvement of the treatment viral hepatitis infections.

Keywords: Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, Treatment, Challenges.

References:

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Abstract:

Testing and diagnosis of HIV infection is considered an important component of the fight against the pandemic. To achieve this, an algorithm which uses highly sensitive and specific tests must be employed. To assess the efficiency and public health implications of the national testing algorithm used for the screening and diagnosis of HIV in Ghana, a systematic review of the literature on the performances of the First Response and Oraquick Advance HIV-1-2 test kits was conducted. Searches in online journals, credible websites and institutions were done to access evaluation reports on the rapid kits to determine their suitability for use in the algorithm in Ghana. The First Response showed varied sensitivities ranging from 88% – 100% in post- market evaluations done in Ghana. The average specificity was 87.4% (range 82. 56%– 92%) when serum was used as the specimen of choice. One study which used whole blood reported a specificity of 100%, significantly better than those obtained with serum. The only report on the OraQuick produced a sensitivity of 98% and a specificity of 94%, falling short of the WHO’s recommended performance characteristics for HIV rapid kits. This study has revealed that the current testing algorithm in Ghana may not be efficient for screening and diagnoses of HIV infections.

Keywords: HIV, Rapid tests, Testing algorithm, Sensitivity, Specificity.

References:

[1].   Abokyi, L.V., Zandoh, C., Mahama, E. et al, 2014, Willingness to undergo HIV Testing in the Kintampo District of Ghana. Ghana Med J., 48(1), 43–6. doi:10.4314/gmj. v48i1.7.

[2].    Amoakita, D.A., Sackey, S.O.& Nartey, P., 2009, Post-Market Assessment of Two Rapid Diagnostic Test Kits Used in The Diagnosis of HIV In the Wa Municipality, Ghana. J AIDS CLIN RES 2019,10: DOI: 10.4172/2155-6113-C1-030.

[3].    Boadu, R., Darko, G., Nortey, P. et al, 2016, Assessing the sensitivity and specificity of First Response HIV-1-2 test kit with whole blood and serum samples: a cross sectional study. AIDS Research and Therapy 2016, 13(9). https://doi.org/10.1186/s 12981-016-0092-0.

[4].    HIV Testing Strategies and Algorithms 2005, Participant Manual, 13/10/2019. https://www.who.int.guidance.pm_module4.pdf.

[5].    Koblavi-Deme, S., Nkengasong, J.N., 2001, Sensitivities and Specificities of HIV Rapid Serologic Assays and Testing Algorithms in an Antenatal Clinic in Abidjan, Ivory Coast, J Clin Microbiol, 39(5),1808-1812.

[6].    Okyere, D.A., 2017, Assessment of the Diagnostic Performance of HIV Rapid Test Kits in Ghana, 2017, 23/09/2019. www.ugspace.ug.edu.gh.

[7].    Tetteh, A.K., Agyarko, E., 2017, Discordant HIV Test Results: Implications on Perinatal and Haemotransfusion Screening for HIV Infection, Cape Coast, Ghana , Journal of Sexually Transmitted Diseases Volume 2017, Article ID 2857397, 6 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/2857397.

[8].    The Body, The complete HIV/AIDS Resource, 09/09/2019. www.thebody.com.

[9].   WHO HIV ASSAYS, Laboratory performance and other operational characteristics, Report 18, 2015. https://www.who.int.int.

Abstract:

The use of Cosmetic Lip Products (CLPs) has historically been a fashion statement for women. However, the health risk associated with CLPs has not been thoroughly investigated given that chemical analysis show that CLPs may contain heavy metals injurious to health. This study is aimed at investigating the knowledge and perception of the possible health risks associated with the use of CLPs.

The study adopted a mixed method study design. The descriptive cross-sectional study involved 390 participants drawn randomly from five female hostels. The qualitative method involved four focus group discussions with ≥6 discussants per FGD recruited by snowballing method and conducted using an FGD guide. Data were collected using a pre tested semi-structured questionnaire which contained an 11-item knowledge scale and a 12-item perception scale. A 22-points knowledge scale and 24 points perception scale were utilized for the study. A Knowledge score  11 and perception score  12 were categorized as poor knowledge and poor perception. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics at p= 0.05 level of significance.

Age of respondents was 19.7±1.2 years. Most discussants reported the potential health risk would not sway them from using CLPs as they did not see CLPs as a threat to their health. Majority (83.3%) had poor knowledge and poor perception (59.2%) of the possible health risks associated with using CLPs.

It is recommended that campaigns using the internet to buttress possible health risk associated with CLPs are embarked on by health advocacy groups.

Keywords: Cosmetic Lip Products, Female, Undergraduates, Health Risk.

References:

[1].   Ali S., Maryam Bello G., Fatima Aliyu A. 2016. Determination of some heavy metals in selected cosmetic products sold in Kano metropolis, Nigeria. Elsevier Toxicology Reports Vol 3, Pg 866–869.

[2].   Airin Z. and Yu Bin H. 2015. Heavy metals contamination in lipsticks and their associated health risks to lipstick consumers. Elsevier Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology Vol. 73, Pg. 191-195.

[3].   ARSO Kenya 2015. Cosmetology and Wellness: A Review of Practices, Products, Risks and the Standardization Needs for Africa. Sector Standardization Needs Review.

[4].   Ayenimo J. G., Yusuf A. M., Adekunle A. S, and Makinde O.W. 2010. Heavy metal exposure from personal care products. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Vol. 84, No. 1, Pg. 8–14.

[5].   Burns D. A., Breathnach S. M., Cox N. and Griffiths C. M. 2004. Mass: Blackwell Science.

[6].   Edhayavarman C. S., and Sunderambal K. 2015. A Study on Brand Loyalty and Its Effect on Buying Behavior in Pudukottai. Shanlax International Journal of Management. Vol 3, No. 2.

[7].   Environmental Working Group. 2012. Myths on cosmetics safety. Retrieved from EWG Site http://www.ewg.org/skindeep/myths-on-cosmetics-safety/.

[8].   Future Market Insights 2017. Colour Cosmetic Market: Lip Make-Up Segment projected to Gain Significant Revenue Share by 2026 over 2016: Global Industry Analysis and Opportunity Assessment for 2016 – 2026.

[9].   Gondal M. A., Seddiqi Z. S., and Nasr M. M., Gondal B. 2010. Spectroscopic detection of health hazardous contaminants in lipstick using laser induced breakdown spectroscopy. J. Hazard. Mater Vol. 175, Pg. 726–732.

[10].  Grace G. 2016. Yahoo Beauty: Black Women May Be Exposed to More Harmful Cosmetic Chemicals. Retrieved 5/5/2017:

https://www.yahoo.com/beauty/black-women-may-be-exposed to-more-harmful-cosmetic-chemicals-060020567.html.

[11].  Health Canada 2011. Toxic metals found in make-up cosmetics and the health risks of hidden heavy metals in face makeup: A report released by Canadian Environmental Defense.Pg 23-26.

[12].  Heyam Ali., Rasha S., Ahmed A., and Babiker El-H. 2015. Attitudes and Perceptions of the Emirates Women Towards Facial Skin Care Products and Herbal Cosmetics. International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Review and Research Vol. 6, No. 3Pg. 178-187.

[13].  Ilkay K. 2014. Factors Influencing Consumer Preferences on Natural and Non-Natural Cosmetics in Turkey. International Journal of Business and Management Studies Vol 6, No 1.

[14].  Katie B. 2016. ELLE: 15 Most Obsessed-over Beauty Products of 2016. Retrieved 5/5/2017 http://www.elle.com/beauty/makeup-skin-care/news/g29233/most-popular-makeup-products-of-2016/.

[15].  Kenneth A. H., Jennifer F., and Bill D. 2011. Cultural and Social Influences on The Perception of Beauty: A Case Analysis of the Cosmetics Industry.Journal of Business case studies Vol. 1 No. 7.

[16].  Khalid A., Bukhari I H., Riaz M., Rehman G., Ain Q. U., Bokhari T. H., Rasool N., Zubair M., Munir S. 2013. Determination of lead, cadmium, chromium and nickel in different brands of lipsticks. IJBPAS Vol. 2, Pg. 1003–1009.

[17].  Lisa Chan M., Stephanie Chalupka M. and Roseann B. 2015. Female College Student Awareness of Exposures to Environmental Toxins in Personal Care Products.

[18].  Parisa Z., Saba M., Sepideh Arbabi-B., and Mahnaz Q. (2012). RiskAssessment of Heavy Metal Contents (Lead andCadmium) in Lipsticks in Iran. International Journal of Chemical Engineering and ApplicationsVol. 3, No. 6.

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Abstract:

Background: Obesity has created a global burden for public health. Adolescents seem to be ignorant of the risk factors and complications associated with obesity. Proper knowledge, perception and practice in terms of behavioural modification, physical activity and nutrition seem lacking amidst these young ones. The aim of this study was to assess the knowledge and perception of health consequences of obesity of secondary school students of Excel Kings and Queens College, Ile Ife, Nigeria.

Methods: It was a cross sectional study that made used of 66 pre-tested, self-administered questionnaires to assess the knowledge and perception of health consequences of obesity. Collated data were analysed with descriptive and inferential statistics.

Results: The result showed that the most secondary school students’ knowledge about obesity is still low and below average and their perception about health consequences of obesity is still poor.

Conclusion: We concluded that, there is need to improve on this aspect as to reduce the increase in obesity high prevalence noticed in the world today. This then can reduce the burden of public health as regards the problems associated with obesity.

Keywords: Obesity, Perception and Knowledge.

References:

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[2].   Arilewola A.O (2017): knowledge and attitude towards obesity among secondary school students of Royal Crystal College, Ile Ife, Nigeria. Texila Int J of Public Health Vol 5 (Suppl 1); 134-47.

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[5].   Azeezat A Oyewande, Amosun Ademola, Taofik A Okuneye, Felix O Sanni, Aderinola M Hassan, Paul A Olaiya (2019): knowledge, attitude and perception regarding risk factors of overweight and obesity in secondary school students in Ikeja local Government Area, Nigeria. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care. Vol 8, Issue 4, pg 1391-1395.

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[22].  Saley Maeed Alotaibi, Awadh Mastour Alharthi, Hashim Hamed Altowairgi, Abduaziz Mastoor Alswat, Meshari Mohammed Altowairgi, Badr Abdor Ghwoidi and Baraa Ali Felemban (2019): Knowledge and attitude towards obesity among male secondary school students in Taif, Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Advanced Research. 4(12),263-272.

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[26].  Titi Xavier Mangalathil, Push Pendra Kumar, Vikas Choughary (2014): Knowledge and attitudes regarding obesity among adolescents of Sikar, Rajesthan. IOSR Journal of Nursing and Health Science. Vol 3, Issue 2, Ver.1(Mar-April), pg. 44-48.

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[31].  Zhang Yi, Ju Liu, Jianliang Yao, Gang Ji, Long Qian, Jing Wang, Guansheng Zang, Jie Tian, Yong Zhan Nie, Yi Edi. Zhang, Mark S Gold and Yijun Liu (2014): Obesity: Pathophysiology and intervention. Nutrients. November. Vol.6(11): 5153-5183.

Abstract:

The main objective of the study was to assess the relation of oral health literacy and psychosocial factors with dental behavior of child carers. This cross-sectional study conducted among the carers of the child studying class V of Mohammadpur Preparatory and model school of Dhaka, during January to December 2015. The sample size was 370, selected by Purposive sampling. Data collected through face to face interview by using semi structured questionnaire. Oral health literacy was measured by Oral Health Literacy adult questionnaire and Psychosocial factors with additional questions to determine dental-efficacy, oral health competency and activation measure. Data analyzed with SPSS 17.0 software. The study found that all the carers were female. (46.8%) of the carer were in an age group of 31-35 years, and (83.2%) of them were housewife. (64.4%) had adequate oral health literacy, 28.6% had marginal literacy and 7.0% of the carers had inadequate literacy. These findings indicate that most of the carers had adequate literacy about oral health. Those who had more literacy about oral health their tooth brushing frequency twice a day was more (P<.05). Young aged carers (P<.05) and those were housewives in occupation (P=.05) were brushed their child teeth twice a day more than other carers. Low carer oral health competency showed more brushing frequency twice a day (P<.05). High carer activation measure -knowledge showed more dental visit by carers (P<.05) and high CAM-skill showed more brushing frequency twice a day (P<.05). High carer activation measure -confidence showed more dental visit by carers (P=.05).

Keywords: Oral health literacy, psychosocial factor, dental behavior, child carers.

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Abstract:

TB-HIV co-infection is common in People Living with HIV/AIDS (PLHIV). Tuberculosis is an opportunistic infection (OI). OIS are infections that occur more often or are more severe in people with weakened immune systems than in people with healthy immune systems. Human Immune Virus Infection (HIV) weakens the immune system, increasing the risk of TB in people with HIV. Infection with both HIV and TB is called TB-HIV co-infection. It is hospital based descriptive study conducted among the cases with TB-HIV co-infection. All the Patients consulting the investigating Physician of a department of medicine at a Seti provincial hospital in Far-western province of Nepal within study period were enrolled after informed consent.

Out of 597 cases of ART taking patient were studied. Among them 54 were diagnosed TB-HIV co-infection, 74% (40) were married and 26% (14) were

Unmarried. Among them 50% (27) were male and 50% (27) were female. Most of the cases were from village and semi-urban settings. TB-HIV co-infection is common opportunistic infection in patient with people living with HIV/AIDS (PLHIV).

Keywords: TB-HIV co-infection, high prevalence in Nepal.

References:

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Abstract:

Objective: Influenza is a major health problem worldwide. Healthcare workers are at increased risk of contracting influenza and spread the disease to their patients and family members. Influenza vaccination is an important public health preventive action to stop the transmission of the disease. However, the uptake remains low due to doubt in the effectiveness of the influenza vaccine. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine the effectiveness of influenza vaccination in reducing influenza-related work absenteeism among HCWs in Malaysia.

Study Design: This is a cross-sectional study.

Methods: The study was conducted at two specialist hospitals in Perak, involved 774 nurses and assistant medical officers who were selected using multistage random sampling. It used a self-administered questionnaire that contained a section on sociodemographic characteristics, and numbers of influenza-related sick leaves in the year of 2017. The influenza vaccination uptake was based on immunization record for the period between 1^st November 2016 and 31^st December 2016.

Results: The result shows the non-vaccinated HCWs reported more often influenza-related sick leave (18.1%, mean 0.39 ±1.03) than by vaccinated HCWs (16.2%, mean 0.27 ± 0.75), although the difference was found to not be statistically significant (p=0.388). However, notably, the total number of workdays lost due to influenza among non-vaccinated HCWs was 1.44 times higher than that among the vaccinated group in the studied hospitals.

Conclusions: These findings could motivate policy makers to strengthen the implementation of an influenza vaccination programme among HCWs and to encourage HCWs to be immunized against influenza.

Keywords: absenteeism, effectiveness, healthcare worker, hospital, influenza, vaccination.

References:

[1].   Sam, I.C.,2015, The burden of human influenza in Malaysia. Med J Malaysia, 70(3), 127–30.

[2].   Lietz, J., Westermann, C. Nienhaus, A., Schablon, A., 2016, The occupational risk of influenza A (H1N1) infection among healthcare personnel during the 2009 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. PLoS One, 11(8),1–19.

[3].   Kuster, S.P., Shah, P.S., Coleman, B.L., Lam, P.P., Tong, A., Wormsbecker, A., et al, 2011, Incidence of influenza in healthy adults and healthcare workers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 6(10), 1–9.

[4].   Taylor, G., Mitchell, R., McGeer, A., Frenette, C., Suh, K.N., Wong, A., et al, 2014, Healthcare-Associated Influenza in Canadian Hospitals from 2006 to 2012. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 35(02), 169–75. Available from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0899823X00190932/type/journal_article.

[5].   World Health Organization, 2015, Seasonal Influenza Vaccine Use in Low- and Middle-Income Countries in the Tropics and Subtropics: A systematic review. Available from: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/188785/1/9789241565097_eng.pdf.

[6].   Ferroni, E., Jefferson, T., 2011, Influenza. BMJ, 1–29.

[7].   Michiels, B., Govaerts, F., Remmen, R., Vermeire, E., Coenen, S., 2011, A systematic review of the evidence on the effectiveness and risks of inactivated influenza vaccines in different target groups. Vaccine, 29(49), 9159–70.

[8].   Zaffina, S., Gilardi, F., Rizzo, C., Sannino, S., Brugaletta, R., Santoro, A., et al, 2019, Seasonal influenza vaccination and absenteeism in health-care workers in two subsequent influenza seasons (2016 / 17 and 2017 / 18) in an Italian pediatric hospital. Expert Rev Vaccines. Taylor & Francis, 18(4), 411–8.

[9].   Sam, I.C., Wan Noraini, Sukhvinder Singh Sandhu, Ismail Norizah, Sengol Selvanesan, Ravindran Thayan, et al, 2018, Seasonal influenza activity based on laboratory surveillance in Malaysia, 2011-2016. J Med viro.

[10].  Ferdinands, J, M, Fry, A.M., Reynolds, S., Petrie, J.G., Flannery, B., Jacksonm, M.L., et al, 2017, Intraseason waning of influenza vaccine protection: Evidence from the US influenza vaccine effectiveness network, 2011-2012 through 2014-2015. Clin Infect Dis, 64(5), 544–50.

[11].  Zetti Zainol Rashid, Humaira’ Jasme, Ho, J.L., Mardiyah Mohd Yusof, Zatil Zahidah Mohd Sharani, Marlyn Mohamad, et al, 2015, Influenza Vaccination Uptake among Healthcare Workers at a Malaysian Teaching Hospital. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health, 46(2), 215–25.

[12].  Abu, H. Samad., Usul, MHBHJ., Zakaria, D., Raman, I., Tasset-Tisseau, A., Baron-Papillon, F., et al, 2006, Workplace vaccination against influenza in Malaysia: Does the employer benefit? J Occup Health, 48(1), 1–10.

[13].  Jefferson, T., Rivetti, A., Demicheli, V., Ferroni, E., 2012, Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy adults (Review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 15(8), 1–185.

[14].  Kheok, S.W., Chong, C.Y., McCarthy, G., Lim, W.Y., Goh, K.T., Razak, L., et al, 2008, The Efficacy of Influenza Vaccination in Healthcare Workers in a Tropical Setting: A Prospective Investigator Blinded Observational Study. Ann Acad Med Singapore, 37, 465–9.

[15].  Lee, S.H., Hesham Rashwan, Mohd Hasni bin Jaafar, Haizal Mohd Hussaini, Datin Ilina Isahak, 2008, Effectiveness of influenza vaccine in preventing influenza-like illness among Faculty of Dentistry staff and students in Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Health Infect. Elsevier, 13(1), 4–9. Available from:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1835561716302538?via%3Dihub.

Abstract:

In 2011 the health district of Djoungolo experienced two measles epidemics with a 69% vaccination completion rate according to district data. The objective of this study was to determine immunization coverage and factors associated with the non-completeness of vaccination of children aged 12-23 months in Djoungolo district in 2012. We used a cross-sectional, community-based study was conducted in 2012. A total of 210 mothers / nannies of 12 to 23-month-old children from Djoungolo district, selected according to the WHO 30 X 7 cluster survey method, were interviewed about vaccines; received by the child before the age of one and the reasons for non-vaccination using a structured questionnaire. Vaccine completeness was 64.3%, ranging from 85.7% for BCG to 66.2% for measles Vaccine. Multivariate logistic regression showed that mothers who were afraid of side effects (P = 0.0454), who did not know the importance of vaccination (P = 0.0139), had missed opportunities for vaccination (P = 0.0055), who took more than one hour to vaccinate their child (P = 0.0005) and who did not master the vaccination schedule (P = 0.00001) were significantly associated with vaccine non-completeness children.

Keywords: Immunization coverage, factors, non-completeness, children from 12 to 23 months.

References:

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Abstract:

Background: Globally injury and deaths due to road traffic accidents (RTA) are a major public health problem more so in developing countries; as lives and disability adjusted life years were lost from road traffic accidents. In Ethiopia numerous problems are related to road traffic accidents. Objective: To determine the prevalence of road traffic accidents and associated factors among taxi drivers in jigjiga town, Eastern Ethiopia.

Methodology: A community based cross sectional study was conducted among randomly selected taxi drivers living in jigjiga town, using a simple random sampling technique to randomly select 378 taxi drivers. The data was collected using a pre-tested, interviewer-administered questionnaire and entered using Epidata version 3.1 and analyzed by SPSS version 20 to identify associated factors of road traffic accidents.

Results: The prevalence of road traffic accidents in past three years was found to be 32.8% (29.0, 34.8) among taxi drivers in the study area. Vehicle ownership (AOR=2.7, CI: 1.64, 4.4), chewing Khat while driving, (AOR= 5.0, CI: 1.1, 22.9), age of the taxi drivers (AOR=2.38, CI: 1.23, 4.59), having own residence (AOR=0.55, CI: 0.33, 0.92) and punishment by traffic police (AOR=0.23, CI: 0.087, 0.47), were significantly associated with road traffic accidents. Conclusion: the result of this, study show that taxi drivers in Jigjiga town inconstant placed themselves increase risk of road traffic accidents by violating traffic laws, especially related to vehicle ownership, chewing Khat while driving, and punishment by traffic police. There is a need for awareness campaigns on road safety rules.

Keywords: Road Traffic Accidents, Prevalence, Associated Factors, Jigjiga Town, Somali Region, Ethiopia.

References:

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[4].   Ameratunga S, Hijar M, Norton R. Road-traffic injuries: confronting disparities to address a global-health problem. The Lancet. 2006; 367(9521):1533-40.

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[6].   Berhanu G. Effects of road and traffic factors on road safety in Ethiopia. IST RAPPORT 2000: 11. 2000.

[7].   Abegaz T, Berhane Y, Worku A, Assrat A, Assefa A. Road traffic deaths and injuries are under-reported in Ethiopia: a capture-recapture method. PloS one. 2014; 9(7): e103001.

[8].   Naci H, Chisholm D, Baker TD. Distribution of road traffic deaths by road user group: a global comparison. Injury prevention. 2009; 15(1):55-9.

[9].      Hassen A, Godesso A, Abebe L, Girma E. Risky driving behaviors for road traffic accident among drivers in Mekele city, Northern Ethiopia. BMC research notes. 2011; 4(1):535.

[10].  Macro O. Central Statistical Agency: Ethiopia demographic and health survey 2005. ORC Macro, Calverton, Maryland, USA. 2006.

[11].  Tiruneh BT, Dachew BA, Bifftu BB. Incidence of road traffic injury and associated factors among patients visiting the emergency department of Tikur Anbessa specialized teaching hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Emergency medicine international. 2014; 2014.

[12].  Asefa NG, Ingale L, Shumey A, Yang H. Prevalence and factors associated with road traffic crash among taxi drivers in Mekelle town, northern Ethiopia, 2014: a cross sectional study. PloS one. 2015; 10(3): e0118675.

[13].  La QN, Lee AH, Meuleners LB, Van Duong D. Prevalence and factors associated with road traffic crash among taxi drivers in Hanoi, Vietnam. Accident; analysis and prevention. 2013; 50:451-5.

[14].  Zhang X, Hongyan Y, Guoqing H, Mengjing C, Yue G, Xiang H. Basic characteristics of road traffic deaths in China. Iranian journal of public health. 2013; 42(1):7.

[15].  Islam MM, Al Hadhrami AY. Increased motorization and road traffic accidents in Oman. Journal of Emerging Trends in Economics and Management Sciences. 2012; 3(6):907.

[16].  Bahadorimonfared A, Soori H, Mehrabi Y, Delpisheh A, Esmaili A, Salehi M, et al. Trends of fatal road traffic injuries in Iran (2004–2011). PloS one. 2013; 8(5): e65198.

[17].  Mishra B, Sinha ND, Sukhla S, Sinha A. Epidemiological study of road traffic accident cases from Western Nepal. Indian journal of community medicine: official publication of Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine. 2010; 35(1):115.

[18].  Lam LT. Environmental factors associated with crash-related mortality and injury among taxi drivers in New South Wales, Australia. Accident Analysis & Prevention. 2004; 36(5):905-8.

Abstract:

Background: Multidrug resistance is one of the emerging public health issue around the world as the treatment is challenging due to loss to follow up and side effects. Multiple factors are responsible for the adherence of treatment. Side effects of drugs, lengthy treatment duration, and complicated treatment procedures are major hindrances in treatment of MDR TB. Similarly, family and social support have prime role in maintaining the treatment adherence among the patients.

Objective: The objective of this study was to find out the role of family and social support in treatment adherence of MDR patients.

Methods and material: Focus Group Discussion and group discussion were conducted in 2 treatment centers NTC and GENETUP. The information collected through FGD and group discussion were translated, transcribed and then respective themes were constructed under which analysis was performed.

Results: Majority of the respondents had received family support for their treatment. Respondents reported that main reasons behind non-adherence of TB was due to side effects of the drugs. Almost 1/3^rd of the respondents felt discrimination from the society while many of them are not engaged in any income generation due to weakness and physical symptoms. The disease status has been disclosed to only close ones in most of the cases rather than the neighbors. Social stigma and discrimination are the reasons behind not disclosing their status.

Conclusion: This study shows that family are the one who are close to the patient and their support plays a crucial role for treatment adherence. Societal support is also necessary but the various stigmas associated with the disease have resulted to hide the disease in community.

Keywords: Adherence, Family and social support, MDR TB, Resistance, Nepal.

References:

[1].   Aryal, S., Badhu, A., Pandey, S., Bhandari, A., Khatiwoda, P., Khatiwada, P., & Giri, A. (2012). Stigma related to tuberculosis among patients attending DOTS clinics of Dharan Municipality.Kathmandu University Medical Journal, 10(37), 48–52.

https://doi.org/10.3126/kumj.v10i1.6914.

[2].   Bichha, R.P., Karki, K.B., Jha, K.K., Salhotra, V.S., & Weerakoon, A.P. (2018). Barriers to Directly Observed Treatment for Multi Drug Resistant Tuberculosis Patients in Nepal - Qualitative Study.SAARC Journal of Tuberculosis, Lung Diseases and HIV/AIDS, 16(1), 6–18.  https://doi.org/10.3126/saarctb.v16i1.23239.

[3].   Gebreweld, F.H., Kifle, M.M., Gebremicheal, F.E., Simel, L.L., Gezae, M.M., Ghebreyesus, S.S., … Wahd, N.G. (2018). Factors influencing adherence to tuberculosis treatment in Asmara, Eritrea: a qualitative study. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-017-0132-y.

[4].   Global tuberculosis report. (2018). Global Health TB Report. In World Health Organization. https://doi.org/ISBN 978-92-4-156564-6.

[5].   Gube, A.A., Debalkie, M., Seid, K., Bisete, K., Mengesha, A., Zeynu, A., … Gebremeskel, F.(2018).Assessment of Anti-TB Drug Nonadherence and Associated Factors among TB Patients Attending TB Clinics in Arba Minch Governmental Health Institutions, Southern Ethiopia.Tuberculosis Research and Treatment, 2018, 1–7.

https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/3705812.

[6].   Paz-Soldán, V.A., Alban, R.E., Jones, C.D., & Oberhelman, R. A. (2013). The provision of and need for social support among adult and pediatric patients with tuberculosis in Lima, Peru: A qualitative study. BMC Health Services Research.

https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-13-290.

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[8].   Ruru, Y., Matasik, M., Oktavian, A., Senyorita, R., Mirino, Y., Tarigan, L.H., Alisjahbana, B. (2018). Factors associated with non-adherence during tuberculosis treatment among patients treated with DOTS strategy in Jayapura, Papua Province, Indonesia.Global Health Action, 11(1), 1510592. https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2018.1510592.

[9].   Samal, J. (2017). Family Perspectives in the Care and Support of Tuberculosis Patients: An Indian Context.The Journal of Association of Chest Physicians, 5.

https://doi.org/10.4103/2320-8775.202899.

[10].  Sengupta, S., Pungrassami, P., Balthip, Q., Strauss, R., Kasetjaroen, Y., Chongsuvivatwong, V., & Van Rie, A. (2006). Social impact of tuberculosis in southern Thailand: Views from patients, care providers and the community. International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[11].  Sermrittirong, S., Van Brakel, W.H., Kraipui, N., Traithip, S., & Bunders-Aelen, J.F.G. (2015). Comparing the perception of community members towards leprosy and tuberculosis stigmatization. Leprosy Review, 86(1), 54–61.

[12].  Truzyan, N., Crape, B., Harutyunyan, T., & Petrosyan, V. (2018). Family-Based Tuberculosis Counseling Supports Directly Observed Therapy in Armenia: A Pilot Project.Journal of Tuberculosis Research, 6(2), 113–124.

https://doi.org/10.4236/jtr.2018.62011.

[13].  Yin, J., Wang, X., Zhou, L., & Wei, X. (2018). The relationship between social support, treatment interruption and treatment outcome in patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in China: a mixed-methods study. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 23(6), 668–677.

https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.13066.

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[15].  Khanal, S., Elsey, H., King, R., Baral, S.C., Bhatta, B.R., & Newell, J.N. (2017). Development of a patient-Centred, psychosocial support intervention for multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) Care in Nepal. PloS one, 12(1), e0167559.

[16].  Lewis, C.P., & Newell, J.N. (2009). Improving tuberculosis care in low income countries–a qualitative study of patients' understanding of patient support in Nepal. BMC public health, 9(1), 190.

[17].  Paz-Soldán, V.A., Alban, R.E., Jones, C.D., & Oberhelman, R.A. (2013). The provision of and need for social support among adult and pediatric patients with tuberculosis in Lima, Peru: a qualitative study. BMC health services research, 13(1), 290.

Abstract:

This study is conducted to assess the influence of radio, poster/billboard/leaflet and healthcare workers as media for contraceptive messages on the use of family planning by women of reproductive age in Tarauni Local Government Area of Kano State, Nigeria. The study used descriptive survey research design. Questionnaires was used to collect data from one hundred and twenty respondents, selected using simple and systematic random sampling technique. The study used frequency tables and percentage to analyses the data, while chi-square was used to answer the research questions at a 0.05 level of significance. The findings of this study indicate that listening to contraceptive messages on radio; reading or seeing contraceptive messages on posters, billboards and/or leaflets and meeting and talking with health care worker on contraceptives strongly influenced use of family planning. The study recommends that Government and other implementing agencies should use the mass media especially radio and posters/billboards/leaflets as the main source of Family planning information at the community level to ensure wider reach and depth of information. All Healthcare workers should be trained on basic family planning method and should offer family planning services routinely to all women of reproductive age who visit hospitals and clinics.

Keywords: Family planning, contraceptives, information, messages, Communication.

References:

[1].   Abebe Gizaw and Nigatu Regassa (2011). Family planning service utilization in Mojo town, Ethiopia: A population-based study. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning Vol. 4(6), pp. 355-363.

[2].   Adeyemi, T.O and Adu, E.T. (2010). Enrolment analysis and the availability of physical facilities for the Universal Basic Education Programme in Ekiti State, Nigeria. Middle East Journal of Scientific Research.

[3].   Ankomah, A., J. Anyanti, and M. Oladosu (2011). Myths, misinformation and communication about family planning and contraceptive use in Nigeria. Open Access Journal of Contraception 2011 (2):95-105.

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[5].   Blake, M., and Babalola, S. (2000). “Impact of a Male Motivation Campaign on Family Planning Ideation and Practice in Guinea”. In Field Report No 13. Center for Communication Programs. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. Bloomberg School of Public Health.

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Abstract:

Background: In 2016, an estimated 718,500 of people living with HIV and about 19,743 AIDS related deaths has occurred in Ethiopia. The current national HIV/AIDS strategic plan [2015-2020] capitalizes on implementing targeted prevention interventions to reach those at risk and vulnerable population groups and preparing district based epidemiologic synthesis using routine data.

Methods: Know Your Epidemic (KYE) method was used to come up with know your epidemic synthesis. Primary and secondary data also used for triangulation of the synthesis in order to identify an updated picture of the HIV epidemic and its drivers of epidemic in Somali region, Ethiopia. The study was conducted in Somali region between May to August 2017.

Result: HIV epidemic scenario in Somali region is relatively low (0.75%) in prevalence according to 2017 EPHI projection. However, it is more heterogeneous among zones, ranges from 6.88% in Sitti zone to 0% in many zones in Somali region, and even more heterogeneous between districts, ranging from 18.86% in Dekasuftu to 0% in many districts. It also various among settings: rural (3.8%) highest figure nationally and Urban (3.5%) according to ANC sentinel surveillance.

Majority of the data shows increasing HIV prevalence trends in Somali region over time in both sex groups.

Somali region has responded the diseases both institutionally and program levels, which is more centralized.

Conclusions: The overall HIV prevalence in Somali region, Ethiopia is relatively low (0.75%, 2016 EPHI) but more varied significantly among zones and districts.

Keywords: Drivers of HIV epidemic, Know epidemic.

References:

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Abstract:

Objective: This study investigated the dynamics of information-adequacy, motivation and behavioral skills towards substance-Use prevention among undergraduates in a selected tertiary educational institution in Ogun State, Nigeria.

Methods: This was a theory-driven cross-sectional design which use a 45-item validated questionnaire to collect data from 604 consenting students by multistage sampling procedure. Variables of information-adequacy regarding substance-use consequences, motivation, Self-Efficacy Behavioral Skills (SEBS) and substance-use were measured. Data collected were analyzed using IBM SPSS version 24 to compute means and standard deviations and test associations between variables and determine path analysis of best predictors of substance-use prevention, at 5% level of significance.

Results: Mean age of respondents was 19.92 ± 3.20 with 56% females and majority (31% ) of final year students participated. Levels of information-adequacy regarding substance-use consequences (6.41±2.51), motivation (23.26±5.76), SEBS (11.67±4.10) and Substance-Use (4.01±7.19) were generally good respectively. There was a significant relationship between information-adequacy and Motivation (r = 0.259; p<0.05), and with self-efficacy behavioral skills (r = 0.341; p <0.05). Information-adequacy (r = -0.10; p<0.05), and SEBS (r = -0.286; p <0.05) and motivation (r = -0.246; p<0.05) were significantly negatively correlated with substance-use. Stepwise Logistic regression analysis showed that SEBS (B= -0.119; OR =0.890; 95%CI: 0.803 – 0.982; p=0.021) was best predictor of substance-use prevention

Conclusion: Self-efficacy behavioral skills of individuals was found to best predict substance-use prevention. Other variables contributed in strengthening behavioral skills and may be useful in designing substance-use prevention intervention as this would strengthen drug use reduction among students.

Keywords: Information-Adequacy, self-efficacy, motivation, behavioral skills, substance-use reduction.

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Abstract:

In 2018, Zambia implemented the Social Health Insurance act as a way of sustainable health care financing and reducing out of pocket expenditures. However, the Social Health Insurance has focused mainly on those in formal employment and has not outlined a clear approach towards the informal sector. A total of 213 research participants were selected in Lusaka district. The study design was a quantitative cross-sectional study and subjects were selected by multistage sampling. The respondents were selected from each of the 5 primary health facility catchment areas from Lusaka district. Multivariate analysis using logistic regression was used to identify financial flow factors associated with sustainable prepayment. The study found that the majority of the respondent were in the non-food business and had run the business for more than 5years. The study found that half of the respondent felt that insurance was beneficial and that contributions should be contributed as an indirect levy. Results of the multivariate analysis found that monthly income greater than K1000 (OR, 0.1, p<0.05) and expenditure on health-related needs above K1000 (OR, 44.1, P<0.05) was associated with sustainable prepayment. The study concluded that monthly income and expenditure on health needs were sustainable predictors of health sector prepayment among the urban informal sector. There is need for the stakeholders to make efforts to design and implement health insurance schemes that will incorporate the different strata of the socio-economic groups. There is need to ensure that insurance contributions are collected as an indirect levy rather than as a direct premium.

Keywords: health insurance, financial flow, prepayment, sustainable, informal sector, policy.

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[1].   Barkan, Steven E.2011, "Sociology, Understanding and Changing the Social World" (2011). Faculty and Staff Monograph Publications. 2. https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/fac_monographs/2.

[2].   Laokri S, Weil O, Drabo KM, Dembelé SM, Kafando B, Dujardin B. 2013, Removal of user fees no guarantee of universal health coverage: observations from Burkina Faso. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 2013; 91:277–82. 10.2471/BLT.12.110015.

[3].   Leive A, Xu K.2008, Coping with out-of-pocket health payments: empirical evidence from 15 African countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 2008; 86:849–56C. 10.2471/BLT.07.049403.

[4].   Nabyonga Orem J, Mugisha F, Kirunga C, Macq J, Criel B.2011, Abolition of user fees: the Uganda paradox. Health policy and planning. 2011;26(suppl_2): ii41–ii51. 10.1093/heapol/czr065.

[5].   Nimpagaritse M, Bertone MP (2011). The sudden removal of user fees: the perspective of a frontline manager in Burundi. Health Policy Plan. 2011;26(Suppl 2):63–71.

[6].   Okungu, V., Chuma, J., Mulupi, S., & McIntyre, D.,2018, Extending coverage to informal sector populations in Kenya: design preferences and implications for financing policy, BMC Health Services Research, 2018, Volume 18, Number 1.

[7].   Ricardo, B.,2014, Universal Health Coverage and the challenges of the informal sector: lessons from developing countries, World Bank, Washington, DC 201433.

[8].   Robert E, & Ride V.2013. Global health actors no longer in favor of user fees: a documentary study. Global Health. 2013 Jul 26; 9:29. doi: 10.1186/1744-8603-9-29. PubMed PMID: 23889807; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3750575.

[9].   Qin VM, Hone T, & Millett C.,2019The impact of user charges on health outcomes in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review, BMJ Global Health 2019;3: e001087.

[10].  World bank, 2014, Annual meetings of the Boards of governors, Washington DC, October 2011 to 2014.

[11].  Xiao, W.,2018, Effects of marital status on household commercial health insurance participation behavior, Journal of Interdisciplinary Mathematics, Vol 21:2 Taylor & Francis, doi:10.1080/09720502.2017.1420569,

https://doi.org/10.1080/09720502.2017.1420569.

Abstract:

Background: "Health is not only the absence of disease but a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being" (WHO, 1946). From this statement the idea about health could be draw that health is as much as a social as a biological issue or health as state of relative, physical, mental and social well-being. Nepal is also developing country. Nepal is driven by many factors such as poverty, low literacy levels, low levels of male and female condom use, cultural and religious factors, stigma and discrimination for the transmission of HIV.

Methods: This study is based on the descriptive and quantitative types of design. Descriptive methods will be used for analysis and interpretations of the collected data.

Results: All the hotel workers of dhangadhi were respondents of the study. There were 20 hotels and 105 hotel workers. Among them 65 male and 40 were female and they were the source of primary data. All 105 respondents were main source of data and the study was conducted at Dhangadhi, Kailai in Far-western province of Nepal.

Conclusion: This is a small-scale study in the area of knowledge, transmission, prevention and influence of STIs among the hotel workers which was performed 2019 at Dhangadhi, Kailai in Far-western province of Nepal. The conclusion derived from the above findings which tried to meet the objectives of the research.

Keywords: To measure the knowledge, attitude and skills of Hotel workers about STIs and HIV/AIDS.

References:

[1].   Chesney MA, Morin M, Sherrl. (000) Adherence to HIV combination therapy. Social science and medicine. 14 (4): 357-366.

[2].   Acharya, L.B. (1999). Knowledge of HIV and AIDS: A case study of married females of age 15-19 in Nepal, Bal kumar K.C. (ed). Population Development in Nepal vol. 6. Kathmandu Central Department of Population Studies pp.12-136.

[3].   Aryal. R.H. (2000). HIV and AIDS: An emerging issue in the health sector with special reference to Nepal, vol. 7. Kathmandu: Central Department of Population studies, pp. 89-110.

[4].   Aryal, R.H. & Adhikari, U.P. (2003). Adolescent and youth in Nepal, population Monograph of Nepal, vol. 7. Kathmandu: Bureau of Statistics, pp 325-351.

[5].   Dahal, A. (2005). A study on HIV/AIDS awareness among married couple of Ugrachandi Nala VDC Kavreplanchock. An unpublished PhD thesis submitted to Department of Health Physical Education, T.U. Kritipur.

[6].   International Conference on Population and development (1994). Program of Action. Cario: 1994.

[7].   Jamarkattel, B.N. (2005). Knowledge and attitude on sexual transmitted disease and HIV/AIDS: a case study of taxi drivers in Pokhara Valley. An Unpublished M.Ed. thesis, submitted to department of Population studies T.U. Kritipur.

[8].   Ministry of Health (1998). National reproductive health strategy of Nepal. www.moh.np.

[9].   National Center for AIDS and STD control (2004). Cumulative HIV and AIDS situation of Kathmandu, Nepal. Department of Health Services, national center for AIDS and STI control.

[10].  National Center for AIDS & STIs Control (July, 2012). Factsheet No1: HIV epidemic update of Nepal.

[11].  NCASC (2012). Case Report by Districts, National Center for AIDS and STI control, Kathmandu.

[12].  New ERA & Macro International inc. (1997).

[13].  UNAIDS (2000). Men and AIDS approaches: Joint United Nations Program. New York.

www.unaids.org

[14].  UNAIDS (2013). Report on the Global Epidemic, HIV and AIDS statistical sheet. www.unaids.org.

Abstract:

Malaria is a public health problem in some parts of Bangladesh, particularly in 13 districts in the north-east and south-east areas. Among them Bandarban district is highly endemic. There is a need for updating preventive measures on malaria for suitable control strategies among tribal populations. Basis of this need the present study assessed the perception of preventive measures of malaria among Tribal adults in higher endemic community. A community based cross-sectional study was done among 316 Tribals adults were selected by convenient sampling technique in Sadar Upazila of Bandarban district. Data were collected through face to face interview by using pretested semi structured questionnaire. Average age of the respondents was 35.0 years with (SD) ±8.9 years. 63.61% female and 36.39% male respondents. One third respondent’s levels of education were no schooling and 51.6% were housewives. About 98.1% of respondents correctly knew that malaria is transmitted by mosquito bite and fever was the recognized symptom for malaria (90.5%). Most of respondents 94.0% knew about malaria preventive measures. More than half 56.3% of respondents did not know about mosquito biting time. Only 20% respondents ever had malaria, among them 55.4% respondent’s malaria was diagnosed more than 3 days and 93.8% started treatment within 1 day after diagnosis of malaria. After multivariate analysis, no. of family member is associated with all family member at home sleep under LLIN (p=0.003, OR=0.323, 95% CI for OR from 0.152 to 0.687) while controlling others variables. Knowledge of malaria and preventive measures was considerable but the utilization of preventive measures was suboptimal.

Keywords: Perception of preventive measure, Malaria, Tribal adult, higher endemic community.

References:

[1].   WHO (2017), Malaria, Geneva: World Health Organization.

[2].   The independent. (2015). Malaria situation in Bangladesh. [Online] Available at:

http://www.theindependentbd.com/printversion/details/9123 [Accessed: 24 Feb. 2017].

[3].   Kimbi, H.K., Nkesa, S.B., Ndamukong-Nyanga, J.L., Sumbele, I.U., Atashili, J. and Atanga, M.B., (2014). Knowledge and perceptions towards malaria prevention among vulnerable groups in the Buea Health District, Cameroon. BMC Public Health, 14(1), p.883.

[4].   Barat, L.M., Palmer, N., Basu, S., Worrall, E.V.E., Hanson, K. and Mills, A., (2004). Do malaria control interventions reach the poor? A view through the equity lens. The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, 71(2_suppl), pp.174-178.

[5].   Singh, R., Musa, J., Singh, S. and Ebere, U.V., (2014). Knowledge, attitude and practices on malaria among the rural communities in aliero, northern
 Nigeria. Journal of family medicine and primary care, 3(1), p.39.

[6].   western Uganda. Malaria journal, 15(1), p.211.

[7].   Wright, K.O., Tayo, F., Odusanya, O.O., Kuyinu, Y.A., Odugbemi, B., Arowolo, T. and Bakare, O., (2013). Perception and practices of Lagos state residents on the prevention and control of malaria in Lagos, Nigeria. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, 6(5), p.503.

[8].      Dhawan, G., Joseph, N., Pekow, P.S., Rogers, C.A., Poudel, K.C. and Bulzacchelli, M.T., (2014). Malaria-related knowledge and prevention practices in four neighbourhoods in and around Mumbai, India: a cross-sectional study. Malaria journal, 13(1), p.303.

[9].      Hanafi-Bojd, A.A., Vatandoost, H., Oshaghi, M.A., Eshraghian, M.R., Haghdoost, A.A., Abedi, F., et al., (2011). Knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding malaria control in an endemic area of southern Iran. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, 42(3), p.491.

Abstract:

Introduction: The third delay is the delay in receiving adequate and appropriate treatment at the healthcare facility by mothers during and after pregnancy. A number of factors are attributable to this delay.

Aim: To identify factors that led to internal delay in management of obstetric emergency, to identify measures to address them and determine the lived experiences of mothers who received obstetric emergency care in Midigo HC IV.

Methods: Purely descriptive cross-sectional design; both qualitative and quantitative in nature. Sample size was 36 participants (33 health workers and 3 mothers).

Results: Factors like long hours of work due inadequate staffing (80%), inadequate refresher training on EmONC (66.7%), poor referral system, poor lighting system, inadequate blood transfusion services and hostility of the community led to delays. Qualitative analysis from mothers confirmed these factors. Measures that could be used to address them were; use of Workload Indicator of Staffing Needs (WISN) to adequately allocate staffs – 90%, holding periodic refresher training on EmONC -93.3%, availability of full-time doctors and anaesthetists (93.3%). Other measures were revamping referral system (93.3%).

Conclusion: Third delays in accessing Emergency Obstetric Care (EmOC) are still a huge challenge in Uganda _ Midigo HC IV.

Keywords: Workload Indicator of Staffing Needs (WISN), Emergency Obstetric Care (EmOC), Emergency Obstetric and Neonatal Care (EmONC).

References:

[1].   Bhandari, T. R. and Dangal, G. (2014). Emergency Obstetric Care: Strategy for Reducing Maternal Mortality in Developing Countries. NJOG, 9 (17): 8-16. Available from:

http://njog.org.np/njog/index.php/njog/article/download/71/43/.

[2].   Bjarke, L. S., Elsass, P., Brigitte, B. N., Massawe, S., Nyakina, J., Vibeke, R. (2010) Substandard emergency obstetric care - a confidential enquiry into maternal deaths at a regional hospital in Tanzania. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 15(8): 894-900. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2010.02554. x.

[3].   Borgen project. (2016). The “Three Delays” at the Root of Maternal Mortality. Borgen project [Blog Post]. Available from https://borgenproject.org/the-three-delays-maternal-mortality/.

[4].   Cavallaro, F. L. and Marchant, T. J. (2013). Responsiveness of Emergency Obstetric Care Systems in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Critical Review of the “Third Delay”. London School of Tropical Medicine Research Online; 92 (5): 496-507. DOI: 10.1111/aogs.12071.

[5].   Hannah, E. K., Alice, S. and Stephen, H. K. (2013). Why Are Women Dying When They Reach Hospital on Time? A Systematic Review of the ‘Third Delay’. Plos one; 8 (5). DOI : https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0063846.

[6].   Helelo, A. Z., Zungu, L. I. and Chiegil, R. J. (2015). What Creates Good Experiences for EmOC Clients in Public Health Facilities in Ethiopia? South African Family Practice, 57 (3): 203-207. DOI: 10.1080/20786190.2015.1024014.

[7].   Israel, G. D. (1992). Determining Sample Size. [Pdf online] 1992. Available from:

https://www.tarleton.edu/academicassessment/documents/Samplesize.pdf.

[8].   Ministry of Health [MoH] Uganda. Annual Health Sector Performance Report: Financial Year 2014/2015. Kampala: Author; 2015.

[9].   Mismay G, Morrow RH. (n.d). Delay in Seeking and Receiving Emergency Obstetric Care in Eritrea. Journal of Eritrean Medical Association (JEMA). Available from

https://www.ajol.info/index.php/jema/article/viewFile/52700/41303.

[10].  Polonia, G. (2013). Analysis of sample size in consumer surveys [Pdf online] 2013. Available at

http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/db_indicators/surveys/documents/workshops/2013/pl-gfk_k._pusczak_-_sample_size_in_customer_surveys_v2_2.pdf.

[11].  Rodolfo, C. P, et al. (2014). Delays in receiving obstetric care and poor maternal outcomes: results from a national multicentre cross-sectional study. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 2014; 14(159). DOI: 10.1186/1471-2393-14-159).

[12].  Thaddeus, S. and Maine, D. (1994). Too Far to Walk: Maternal Mortality in Context. Social Science and Medicine, 38 (8): 1091-1110. DOI: 10.1016/0277-9536(94)90226-7.

[13].  Uganda Bureau of Statistic [UBOS]. National Population and Housing Census 2014. Kampala: Author; 2015.

[14]. United Nations Development Programme [UNDP]. (2017). Sustainable Development Goal, Goal 3 targets. [Blog Post]. Available from

http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-3-good-health-and-well-being/targets/

[15].  United Nations Population Fund [UNFPA]. (2014). Setting Standards for Emergency Obstetric and Newborn Care. [Blog Post]. Available from http://www.unfpa.org/resources/setting-standards-emergency-obstetric-and-newborn-care.

[16].  World Health Organization [WHO]. (2009). Monitoring Emergency Obstetric Care: A Handbook. Geneva: Author.

[17].  World Health Organization [WHO]. (2015). Applying the Lessons of Maternal Mortality Reduction to Global Emergency Health. Bulletin of the World Health Organization; 93: 417-423. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2471/BLT.14.146571.

[18].  World Health Organization [WHO]. (2016). World Health Statistics data visualizations Dashboard. [Blog Post]. Available from

http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.sdg.3-1?lang=en.

Abstract:

Department of Health (DOH) the regulator of Abu Dhabi region in UAE launched its Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) on March 21, 2016. There has been little success to this program in transforming the breastfeeding experience of Abu Dhabi mothers. This paper tries to analyze the attitude of Abu Dhabi mothers towards breastfeeding and to explore the factors that modulates maternal attitude. A quasi experimental design has been with mixed methods approach to guide this study. A convenient sampling of 384 women visiting maternal clinics were recruited to answer an IOWA questionnaire. The overall breastfeeding experience of UAE mothers are suboptimal. The UAE mother prefers formal feeding over breastfeeding due to their processional commitments. Multiple factors modulate maternal attitude to breastfeeding.

Keywords: breastfeeding, attitude, breastfeeding attitude, breastfeeding factors, breastfeeding practices.

References:

[1].   Ahmed and Salih (2019). Determinants of the early initiation of breastfeeding in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. International breastfeeding journal, 14(13). doi.org/10.1186/s13006-019-0207-z.

[2].   Al Ketbi, Mai & Noman, Sultan & Ali, Abdelqadir & Darwish, Ebtihal & Fahim, Maha & Rajah, Jaishen. (2018). Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of breastfeeding among women visiting primary healthcare clinics on the island of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. International Breastfeeding Journal. 13. 10.1186/s13006-018-0165-x.

[3].   Al Tajir, G.K., Sulieman, H., Badrinath, P. (2006). Intragroup differences in risk factors for breastfeeding outcomes in a multicultural community. J Hum Lactation; 22:39-47.

[4].   Al-Mazroui M.J, Oyejide C O., Bener A., Cheema M.Y (1997). Breastfeeding and supplemental feeding for neonates in Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates; Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 43(5):304-306.

[5].   Al-Mutairi, N. F., Al-Omran, Y. A., and Parameaswari, P. J. (2017). Breastfeeding practice and knowledge among women attending primary health-care enters in Riyadh. Journal of family medicine and primary care. April to June; 6(920), 392-398, doi: 10.4103/jfmpc_243_17.

[6].   Boshra, A., M. and Samah, A., S. (2018). Mothers’ Attitudes toward Breastfeeding and Their Association with Infants’ Characteristics. IOSR Journal of Nursing and Health Science 7 (3) 60-69: DOI: 10.9790/1959-0703036069.

[7].   Dozier, A. M., Nelson, A., & Brownell, E. (2012). The Relationship between Life Stress and Breastfeeding Outcomes among Low-Income Mothers. Advances in preventive medicine, 2012, 902487. doi:10.1155/2012/902487.

[8].   Eidelman, A.I.; Schanler, R.J.; Johnston, M.; Landers, S.; Noble, L.; Szucs, K.; Viehmann, L (2012). Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics 129, doi:10.1542/peds.2011-3552.

[9].   Fikri, M. and Farid, S (2000). United Arab Emirates Family Health Survey; United Arab Emirates Ministry of Health: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.

[10].  Fleming, S., Smart, D., and Eide, P. (2011). Grand Multiparous Women’s Perceptions of Birthing, Nursing Care, and Childbirth Technology. The Journal of Perinatal Education, 20(2), 108–117, doi: 10.1891/1058-1243.20.2.108.

[11].  Louise Gallagher (2012), Sub-optimal breastfeeding experience and its effects on women, factors affecting initiation and duration of breastfeeding in Ireland. Assessed on October 2019: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Sub-optimal-breastfeeding-experience-and-its-on-and-Gallagher/ea6f8f68c1d8c288af998089f074d8774d8e8f31.

[12].  Mora, A., D., L., Russell, D., W., Dungy, C., I., Losch, M., and Dusdieker, L. (1999). The IOWA Infant Feeding Attitude Scale: Analysis of Reliability and Validity. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 29(11) pp. 2362-2380.

[13].  Radwan, H. (2013). Patterns and determinants of breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices of Emirati mother in the United Arab Emirates. BMC Public Health, 13: 171. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/13/171.

[14].  SBFO introduces UNICEF breastfeeding guidelines (June 2019). Retrieved from https://www.sharjah24.ae/en/sharjah/193042/SBFO-introduces-UNICEF-breastfeeding-guidelines.

[15].  Scott J.A. and Mostyn T. (2003) Women's Experiences of Breastfeeding in a Bottle-Feeding Culture. Journal of Human Lactation 19(3), 270-277.

[16].  Taha, Z. (2017). Trends of Breastfeeding in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Knowledge E. doi: 10.18502/ajne. v2i3.1356.

[17].  Taha, Z., Garemo, M., & Nanda, J. (2018). Patterns of breastfeeding practices among infants and young children in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. International breastfeeding journal, 13, 48. doi:10.1186/s13006-018-0192-7.

[18].  The world breastfeeding trends initiative (WBTi). Kingdom of Saudi Arabia report. Assessed on 13th May, 2019:

http://worldbreastfeedingtrends.org/GenerateReports/report/WBTi-Saudi-Arabia-2016.pdf

Abstract:

Hepatitis C infections have become public health concern globally and in Ghana, 1 in14 cases of cirrhosis is caused by HCV. Diagnosis and treatment remain crucial in the control and prevention of this epidemic. The purpose of this study was to examine the types of rapid assays and testing algorithms used for the screening and diagnosis of HCV in Ghana.

Structured questionnaires were sent to selected public and private laboratories across the country to elicit responses on the types of rapid assays and testing algorithms used for the screening and diagnosis of HCV. Searches in online journals, credible websites and institutions were done to access evaluation reports on the rapid kits in Ghana to determine their suitability for use and the efficiency of the algorithms. Seventeen different rapid kits were found to be in use in the facilities sampled. Only 2 out of the 17 were WHO prequalified. DiaSpot, the most widely used test kit was neither WHO pre-qualified nor FDA approved. Very limited information on evaluations was found in Ghana. All the facilities sampled use a single assay testing strategy.

This study revealed that the reliability of the rapid kits used in the testing algorithms in Ghana cannot be guaranteed and thus may not be efficient for screening and diagnoses of HCV infections in Ghana. There was also no public or private facility sampled which does Nucleic Acid Testing, making the definitive diagnosis of HCV very difficult.

Keywords: Rapid assays, Suitability, HCV, NAT.

References: