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[10].  NPC & ICF, 2019, UNICEF, 2021, National health surveys consistently show that routine immunization coverage often falls below recommended levels, exposing children under two to preventable health risks.

[11].  Lakew, et al., 2015, Fagbamigbe & Kandala, 2021, transportation costs pose a significant obstacle, as many caregivers in rural communities cannot afford travel to distant health facilities.

[12].  Odusanya, et al., 2008, Adedokun, et al., 2017, Yakubu, et al., 2019, In Jigawa State Nigeria, low immunization uptake has been linked to several barriers, including poor access to health facilities, limited awareness among caregivers, cultural beliefs, and financial constraints.

[13].  UNICEF, 2021, NPC & ICF, 2019, MICS, 2021, Nigeria national surveys and zero-dose landscape analyses show lower coverage in many northern states (including the North-West) and highlight distance, transport cost, and socioeconomic constraints as major demand-side barriers

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[18].  Barham & Maluccio, 2009, Ozawa et al., 2012, Earlier economic and public health evidence also demonstrates that conditional cash transfers improve vaccination outcomes in similar low-resource contexts.

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[23].  Yakubu, et al., 2019, Oleribe, et al., 2017, Caregivers utilizing immunization services in northern Nigeria. Studies in northern Nigeria have shown that, caregivers utilizing immunization services are predominantly married women.

[24].  NPC & ICF, 2019, Nigeria national surveys, demonstrating that caregivers of young children in northern Nigeria are predominantly women aged 25–39 years.

[25].  uptake Odusanya et al., 2008, Adedokun & Yaya, 2020, Literacy level among gender in Northern Nigeria. Northern Nigeria has lower female educational attainment, a factor strongly associated with reduced health-seeking behavior and suboptimal immunization.

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