Abstract:

Introduction: In the 8th edition of the diabetic report (2018), the age-adjusted Diabetes mellitus prevalence among the Omani adult population was 12.6%. In Oman, the prevalence of DR among diabetics ranges from 14.5% to 42.2%. 10% of this population has an irreversible visual blindness. A pilot study within the population highlighted diabetic retinopathy related awareness and knowledge rift. Cost-effective DR related health promotional activities can reduce the barrier of lacking knowledge leading to the disease burden.

Aim: To design an assessment based, validated contextual model of a Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) related to health promotion.

Material and Methods: The study followed an evidence-based approach while designing the DR health promotion resource. Our initial surveys tested the DR related knowledge and perception towards current diabetic retinopathy related health promotional tools among Omani population. We used Elsevier (2015) guidelines while structuring these evidences.

Results: The duration of the designed health intervention is six minutes fifty-one seconds. The presentation included information on managerial and rehabilitative options. It provides the health education material with no cost or discrimination to the community. The video format is compatible with most of the web browsers. Users can download and view it on personal computers, mobiles or tablets.

Conclusion: This study provides a contextual and evidence-based approach for the design of a DR health promotion tool. It can be circulated with no cost or discrimination within the Omani community.

Keywords: Diabetic retinopathy eye-health education, eye-health promotion.

References:

[1].Ahmed, R. A., Khalil, S. N., & Al-Qahtani, M. A. (2016). Diabetic Retinopathy and the associated risk factors in Diabetes type 2 patients in Abha, Saudi Arabia. Journal of family & community medicine, 23(1), 18.

[2].Al-Howaish, A. K. (2013). Economic costs of Diabetes in Saudi Arabia. Journal of family & community medicine, 20(1), 1.

[3].Al-Lawati, J. A. (2017). Diabetes Mellitus: A Local and Global Public Health Emergency! Oman medical journal, 32(3), 177.

[4].Al-Lawati, J. A., Panduranga, P., Al-Shaikh, H. A., Morsi, M., Mohsin, N., Khandekar, R. B., ... & Bayoumi, R. A. (2015). Epidemiology of Diabetes Mellitus in Oman: Results from two decades of research. Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal, 15(2), e226.

[5].Al-Rahbi, H. (2014). Diabetes self-management (DSM) in Omani with type-2 Diabetes. International Journal of Nursing Sciences, 1(4), 352-359.

[6].Brame, C. J. (2016). Effective educational videos: Principles and guidelines for maximizing student learning from video content. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 15(4), es6.

[7].Elsevier. (2015). How to Develop and Use Effective Patient/Consumer Education. Retrieved from https://www.elsevier.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/139902/Elsevier_WP_PatientEducationWhitepaper5_29_15WEB.pdf

[8].International Diabetes Federation. (2018). IDF Diabetes atlas - Across the globe. Retrieved from http://www.Diabetesatlas.org/across-the-globe.html

[9].Khan, M. A., Khan, S., Rehman, A., & Ghouse, S. M. (2017). Internet Usage Patterns: An Exploratory Study in Oman. International Journal of Applied Engineering Research, 12(7), 1232-1236.

[10]. Khandekar, R. B., & Al-Lawati, J. A. (2015). Epidemiology of Diabetic Retinopathy in Oman: Two decades of research. Oman Journal of Ophthalmology, 8(1), 1.

[11]. Khandekar, R., Al Lawati, J., & Barakat, N. (2011). A retrieval system for patients with avoidable blindness due to Diabetic Retinopathy who do not present for ophthalmic assessment in Oman. Middle East African journal of ophthalmology, 18(2), 93.

[12]. Majeed, A., El-Sayed, A. A., Khoja, T., Alshamsan, R., Millett, C., & Rawaf, S. (2014). Diabetes in the Middle-East and North Africa: an update. Diabetes research and clinical practice, 103(2), 218-222.

[13]. Ministry of Health. (2016). Chapter 8: Health Domains. Retrieved from https://www.moh.gov.om/documents/16506/119833/Health+Vision+2050/7b6f40f3-8f93-4397-9fde-34e04026b829

[14]. National Eye Institute 1. (2018). Animation: Diabetic Retinopathy. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X17Q_RPUlYo

[15]. National Eye Institute 2. (2018). Animation: Detecting Diabetic Retinopathy through a dilated eye exam. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sQ-0RkPu35o&feature=youtu.be

[16]. National Eye Institute 3. (2018). Diabetic Eye Disease. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OySJTTMshyM

[17]. Vankudre, G., Galal, I., Al Shumosi, S. (2018). Awareness and Knowledge of Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) among Al-Batinah Population, Oman-A Pilot Study, 2018. TEXILA INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH, 6(2), 24-33. doi: 10.21522/tijph.2013.06.02.art004

[18]. World Health Organization. (2018). International Classification of Diseases. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/

Abstract:

Background: In Nigeria, urinary schistosomiasis was considered a public health problem associated only with the rural communities. Objectives: In this study, the prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium infection presenting at Kuje General Hospital and Zionness Medical Centre (newly developed modern estate) were carried out in retrospect to determine whether the distribution S. haematobium infection rate had a particular trend. Methods: The available records of patients referred for urinalysis between 2011 and 2014 were retrospectively reviewed and analysed. Results: Prevalence of S. haematobium infection at Kuje General Hospital (an urban poor community) was analysed to be 13.4% whilst Zionness Medical Centre (a peri-urban settlement) recorded 7.9%. The infection was higher among males (69.7%) than the females (30.3 %) as observed and recorded at both hospitals. Conclusions: It was concluded that the urban poor communities around Kuje General Hospital are seriously affected by S. haematobium infection as compared to Zionness Medical Centre. Agricultural, economics and recreational activities of these communities’ members living around the river bank in addition to problem associated with lack of good household water supply might possibly account for the high risk of the infection in the urban poor communities that surround the Kuje General Hospital.

Keywords: S. haematobium, Prevalence, Urinalysis, Peri-urban settlement.

References:

[1].    World Health Organization, (1993). The control of schistosomiasis: Second report of the WHO Expert Committee. WHO Technical Report Series 830. Geneva: WHO.

[2].    Akogun, O. B., Sambo, E. O. and Dahiru, B. (2004). Schistosomiasis among school children in an agro-industrial estate of Adamawa state, Nigeria. Nig. Soc, Parasit., 18^th Annual Conference, Abstract No. 6.

[3].    Udonsi, J. K. (1990). Human community ecology of urinary schistosomiasis in relation to snail vector bionomics in the Igwun River Nigeria. Trop. Med. Parasitol., 41,131-135.

[4].    Bierman WF, Wetsteyn JC, van Gool T. (2005). Presentation and diagnosis of imported schistosomiasis: relevance of eosinophilia, microscopy for ova, and serology. J Travel Med. Jan-Feb; 12(1):9-13.

[5].    Roberts, Larry S. and John Janovy Jr. (2000). Foundations of Parasitology 6th Ed. Boston: McGraw Hill.

[6].    Okoli, C. G. and Iwuala, M. O. E. (2004). Urinary Schistosomiasis in Imo state, Nigeria: A study of its prevalence intensity and clinical signs in four local government areas. Journal of Helminthology, 78(4), 337-342.

[7].    World Health Organization (2002): Report of the Who Information Consultation in low transmission areas and Criteria for elimination. London, 10-13 April 2000 WHO/CDS/CPE/SIP/2001.

[8].    WHO, (1996). Schistosomiasis facts sheet No 115.  Geneva. WHO.

[9].    Adamu, T., and Danga, C. (2002): Malumfashi Endemic Disease Research Project Vlll. The importance of Young Males from Malunfashi Area, Northern Nigeria, in the transmission of Schistosoma haematobium infection. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 73 (3): 189-190.

[10].Anya, A.O. and Okafor F.C, (2002).  Parasitological studies among Primary School Children in Imo State. The Nigerian Journal of Parasitology, 23:2002 111-118.

[11].Okafor, F. C. (2003).  Schistosoma haematobium cercariae transmission patterns in fresh water systems of Anambra State, Nigeria. Angew Parasitol 31, 159-166.

[12].Nnoruka V. C. (2002).  Epidemiological Studies of Urinary schistosomiasis in Imo State.  The Nigerian Journal of parasitology. 23. 119-124.

[13].WHO, (2003). Schistosomiasis (online) Cited 5 February. Available at http: www.who.int/ltd/schistp.

[14].Amadi, O. (1990). The prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis among Primary School Children in Benue State, Nigeria.   Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 83-2: 197-198.

[15].Ukpai O.M and Ejeike, A.C. (2002). The Prevalence of Urinary Schistosomiasis in Aguata Local Government Area, Anambra State, Nigeria. The Nigerian Journal of Parasitology, 23:139-144.

[16].Okoronkwo M.O, (2002). Intestinal Parasites Associated with Human and Animal Waste Utilization in Jos and Barkin Ladi Area of Plateau State, Nigeria. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria.

[17].Idris, H.S; Ajamsi, J.O.; Umoh, J.U.; Galadima M. and Ogbogu, V.C. (2001). Prevalence of Schitosomiasis among pupils in some local government areas in Katsina State, Nigeria. The Nigerian Journal of Parasitology vol. 22 (1&2), pp75-80.

[18].Cheesebrough M. (2005) District laboratory practice in tropical countries. 2 edn. Cambridge University Press: New York, 236-239.

[19].Clennon J.A., King C.H., Muchiri E.M., Kariuki H.C., Ouma J.H., Mungai P. and Kitron U. (2004) American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 70: 443-448.

[20].Mbata T., Orji M. and Oguoma V. (2008). The Internet Journal of Epidemiology, 6 (1).

[21].Okolie I. and Odaibo A.B. (1999) Tropical Medicine & International Health, l4 (4): 308-315.

[22].Agnew-Blais J., Carnevale J., Gropper A., Shilika E., Bail R. and Ngoma M. (2010) Journal of Tropical Paediatrics, 56(4): 247 - 253.

[23].Chimbari M.J. and Chirundu D. (2003) African Journal of Medicine, 49(1-2):8-12.

[24].Daniel A. A., Adamu T., Abubakar, U. and Dakul, A.A. (2001). Preliminary Studies on schistosomiasis in Zuru-Emirate of Kebbi State, Nigeria. The Nigerian Journal of Parasitology 22; (1 and 2): 65-74.

[25].Kariuki H.C., Clennon J.A., Brady M.S., Kitron U., Sturrock R.F., Hoffman O., Hamburger J., Ouma J., Tosha S., Ndzovu M., Munga P., Pelligreni C., Muchiri E. and King C.H. (2004) American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 70(4): 443-456.

[26].WHO (2002) World Health Organ Technical Report Series, 912: i-vi, 1-57. [25] Elderdery A., Eltoum M., Babiker A. and Hani B. (2008) Urological Cancer, 3(4): 18-19.

Abstract:

Introduction: Nigeria is the third highest Tuberculosis (TB)-burden country in the world and number one in Africa. Level of TB case detection and control is low. Community pharmacists can be trained to provide TB case detection of new patients and management of patients who had been earlier assessed and treatment initiated in the hospitals.

Aim: To assess the level of Community Pharmacists’ knowledge and involvement in Tuberculosis case detection and management.

Methodology: This is the first phase of the interventional study that was aimed at scaling up community pharmacists’ involvement in tuberculosis case detection and management. A cross sectional descriptive study was carried out on 285 randomly selected Community Pharmacists in Lagos State using a multi-staged cluster sampling method and structured questionnaire, followed by Focus Group Discussions and Key Informant Interviews.

Results: Knowledge on TB cause, transmission, signs and symptoms was high, 98%, 95.5% and 88.1% respectively while 73.15% of the pharmacists said they have identified clients suspected of having pulmonary TB. Of the Pharmacists that have identified clients suspected of having pulmonary TB, majority (65.7%) had referred them to the health centres. Only 15.4% of the pharmacists were involved in DOTs with TB patients. Correct knowledge of duration of treatment was found among 83.6% of respondents.

Conclusion: Community Pharmacists are highly knowledgeable in TB cause, transmission, signs, symptoms, regimen and duration of treatment and are informally involved in TB case detection and management.

Keywords: Community Pharmacists; Tuberculosis; Knowledge; involvement; Case Detection, Scaling-up.

References:

[1].     Carolyn A., Jenni I., Gregory J., (2015): Referral of tuberculosis symptomatic clients from private pharmacies to public sector clinics for diagnosis and treatment in Cambodia

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jep.12306/fullReferral Accessed August 9, 2016.

[2].     Carolyn, B., Palena, N., (2006): Conducting In-depth Interviews: a guide for designing and conducting in-depth interviews for evaluation input, Pathfinder International Tool Series. Available at www.pathfinder.org/site/.../m_e_tool_series_indepth_interviews.pdf on April 26, 2016.

[3].     Charlotte, C., Jackson, M., D’Arcy, R. (2014). Evaluation of community-based interventions to improve TB case detection in a rural district of Tanzania. Glob Health Sci Pract. 2014 May; 2(2): 219-225. Available at: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Accessed on April 4, 2016.

[4].     Creative Research Systems (1982): The Survey Systems-Cochran’s sample size calculation. Available at https://www.surveysystem.com/sample-size-formula.htm. Accessed March 23, 2016.

[5].     Eliot & Associates (2005): Guidelines for conducting a Focus Group.

[6].     Available at https://assessment.trinity.duke.edu/documents/How_to_Conduct_a_Focus_Group.pdf. Accessed on April 2, 2016.

[7].     Gail, M. (2010): The role of the pharmacists in Tuberculosis management. South Africa Journal, March 2010. P 20. Available at www.sapj.co.za/index.php/SAPJ/article/download/741/68   Accessed on April 26, 2016.

[8].     Hausmann-Muela, Susanna; Ribera, Joan Muela; Nyamongo, Isaac; (2003); “"Health-seeking behaviour and the health system response”"; DCPP Working Paper No. 14; [Online]; Available at http://www.dcp2.org/file/29/wp14.pdf; Accessed on May 11, 2017.

[9].     Lagos State, 2006. Lagos State Bureau of Statistics 2005. Available at http://www.lagosstate.gov.ng. Accessed on April 10, 2016.

[10]. Malik M, Rutta E.2016: Technical Report: Engaging Private Sector Pharmacies in Pakistan to Increase Early TB Case Detection. Available at http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/m/abstract/Js22419en/ Accessed May 11, 2017.

[11]. Morris Okumu, Freddy Eric Kitutu, Bush Herbert Aguma, Asha Nabbale, Brian Sekayombya 2012: Strengthening Community Pharmacies Role in Early Tuberculosis Case Detection and Referrals – Case Study of Jinja Municipality. Aavailable at https://www.scribd.com/document/240247366 Accessed on August 14, 2017.

[12]. PCN (2015): A list of Registered Pharmacists and Pharmaceutical Premises in Nigeria; A publication of the Pharmacists Council of Nigeria.

[13]. Vandamme, Ellen; (2009); Concepts and challenges in the use of Knowledge Attitude-Practice surveys: Literature review; One Health Network; [Online]; Available on http://www.onehealthnet.be/review2.html; Accessed May 11, 2017.

[14]. Who (2015) Tuberculosis: DOTS case detection rate. Available at http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat2006TuberculosisDOTSDetectionRate.pdf. Accessed February 28, 2016.

[15]. Yasir S., (2015): Involvement of the Retail Pharmacies in Pakistan Tuberculosis Control: Assessment of the knowledge of the retail pharmacy staff about tuberculosis and public tuberculosis Control Programme, and sale practices of anti-tuberculosis drugs in DI Khan city, Khyber Pukthoon Khwa Province, Pakistan Available at http://bora.uib.no/bitstream/handle/1956/11681/141924954.pdf?sequence=1 Accessed on April 26, 2016.

[16]. Zahra Nailah White; (2011): Survey on the knowledge Attitude and Practices on Tuberculosis among Healthcare workers in Kingston and St. Andrew, Jamaica (Online) Available at http://www.support.liverpool-online.com/~/media/Files/UOLCSS/mph/MPH_Quantitative_Dissertation_2.pdf. Accessed on September 2, 2017.

Abstract:

Objectives: To identify methods of refractive error correction preferred by adolescents in the rural region of India.

Materials and Methods: A quantitative cross-sectional, questionnaire-based study was conducted to investigate the choices of refractive correction among teenagers in the junior college, rural district of India. A purposive sampling was done to complete the required sample size. Inclusion criteria for the study was considered as, students who enrolled in the four majors of programme i.e., BiPC (biology, physics and chemistry), MPC(maths, physics and chemistry), HEC (history, economics and civics), CEC(commerce, economics and civics) and Vocational; including CS&E (computer science and Engineering) and A&T(accountancy and taxation). Age ranged from 16-18 yrs. Exclusion criteria; students who were over 18 yrs. were excluded from the study. A self-designed questionnaire was used to obtain the data. Content validation and test-retest were conducted prior to administration of the questionnaire.

Results: Total N= 631 participants from four majors were included in the research. The results reveal a 57% of the samples preferred spectacle lens to correct refractive error closely followed by 41.5% of adolescents choosing contact lenses. Contraindication (46.1%) was suggested as a hindrance to the use of contact lens while only 15.5% chose affordability and (38.4%) listed as an occupation is the key factor to not to use contact lenses for correcting refractive error. Most salient features in the research are that more than half of the population considered eye hospital as the healthcare facility to seek in case of inadequate vision.

Conclusion: The study concludes that there is a lack of awareness related to primary eye care among the said population, emphasizing the role of eye care professionals in the public health sector.

Keyword: Preferences, Refractive Error, Adolescents, Refractive Correction, and Methods.

References:

[1].Bourne, R. R., Stevens, G. A., White, R. A., Smith, J. L., Flaxman, S. R., Price, H., ... & Pesudovs, K. (2010). Causes of vision loss worldwide, 1990–2010: a systematic analysis. Lancet Glob Health. 2013; 1 (6): e339–49. This meta-analysis describes the prevalence and causes of visual impairment and blindness worldwide in various world regions in.

[2].Dandona L, Dandona R, Srinivas M, et al. Blindness in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2001; 42:908e16.

[3].Dandona R, Dandona L, Srinivas M, et al. Moderate visual impairment in India: the Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study. Br J Ophthalmol 2002; 86:373e7.

[4].Holden BA, Fricke TR, Ho SM, et al. Global vision impairment due to uncorrected presbyopia. Arch Ophthalmol 2008; 126:1731e9.

[5].Quora.com. (2018). What's the meaning of MPC, BPC, MBPC, CEC, HEC in the subjects of intermediate? - Quora. [online] Available at: [Accessed 7 Jul. 2018]. https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-meaning-of-MPC-BPC-MBPC-CEC-HEC-in-the-subjects-of-intermediate

[6].Resnikoff S, Pascolini D, Mariotti SP, et al. Global magnitude of visual impairment caused by uncorrected refractive errors in 2004. Bull World Health Organ 2008; 86:63e70.

[7].Resnikoff, S., Pascolini, D., Mariotti, S. P., & Pokharel, G. P. (2008). Global magnitude of visual impairment caused by uncorrected refractive errors in 2004. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 86, 63-70.

[8].Taylor, H. R. (2003). Eye care for the future: the Weisenfeld lecture. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science, 44(4), 1413-1418.

[9].WHO. Elimination of Avoidable Visual Disability Due to Refractive Errors, in WHO/PBL/00.79. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2001.

[10].      Agarwal, R., & Dhoble, P. (2013). Study of the knowledge, attitude, and practices of refractive error with emphasis on spectacle usages in students of rural central India. journal of biomedical and pharmaceutical research, 2(3).

Abstract:

Objective: Sexual violence is a completed or attempted sex act against the victim’s will or involving a victim who is un­able to consent such as abusive sexual contact, forced abortion, forced prostitution, trafficking, non-contact sexual abuse and female genital mutilation. The Purpose of the study was to assess prevalence of sexual violence and health related effects among students in co-education public day secondary schools in kinondoni municipality, Dar es Salaam.

Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study in Kinondoni municipality, Dar es Salaam region. Form four students were systematically selected from 5 randomly selected co-education public day secondary schools which were Makoka, Kigogo, Makurumla, Turiani and Manzese. Self-administered questionnaire with closed ended questions were administered.

Results: A total of 430 form 4 students from 5 out of 48 coeducation public day secondary schools with mean age 17.5±1.0 years, range of 15-22 years participated in this study. About 216 (50.2%) experienced at least one form of sexual violence. Chi square test showed higher proportion of students (61.5) who were victims of sexual violence were aged ≥ 18 years than those (41.9%) aged <18 years (P value < 0.05). About 39(33.3%) of 117 female victims were impregnated. Higher proportion (45.6%) of 215 students experienced Low self-esteem by higher proportion (59.3%) of female than male students (28.9%) (p value <0.001).

Study limitations: Concealment of information due to sensitivity of questions asked during interviews.

Conclusion: This study has shown that sexual violence and health related effects were reported more by female than male students.

References:

[1].Who. Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women. 2010;

[2].Ohsako TE. Violence at School: Global Issues and Interventions. Studies in Comparative Education. 1997;127.

[3].Mandela N. Addressing Violence against Women within the Education Sector. 2005;1–6.

[4].Adogu POU, Adinma ED, Onyiaorah VI, Ubajaka CF. Perception, Prevalence and Predictors of Rape among Female Students in a Tertiary Institution. 2014;(July):819–28.

[5].Barton C. Stop Violence Against Girls in School. 2004.

[6].Hill C, Kearl H. Sexual Harassment at School. 2011.

[7].Harris L, Freccero J. Sexual violence: medical and psychosocial support. 2011;37.

[8].Unicef. Violence Against Children in Tanzania: Findings from a National Survey 2009 [Internet]. Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania: UNICEF Tanzania. 2011.

[9].Save the Children Denmark. A Study on Violence against Girls in Primary Schools and Its Impacts on Girls’ Education in Ethiopia. 2008;(May):1–90.

[10]. Fry DH, Davidson LL, Rickert VI, Lessel H. Partners and Peers: Sexual and Dating Violence Among New York City Youth. New York City Alliance Against Sex Assult. 2008;

[11]. World Youth Report. The Situation of Girls and Young Women. 2003;249–69.

[12]. Mattern G. Violence Against Men in New Hampshire. Centre for Disease Control and Prevention. 2007.

[13]. Kadriu E. Prevalence of violence in adolescents’ relationships. 2012;

[14]. WSLA. “They are Destroying Our Futures.” 2012.

[15]. Y.B A. school gender-based violence in Africa: Prevalence and Consequences. 2014;2(2):1–20.

[16]. ACPF. Violence Against Children in Africa. 2011.

[17]. Leach F. A global review of current issues and approaches in Policy, programming and implementation responses to school related gender-based violence for education sector. 2011;2–3.

[18]. DTS. Unsafe Schools: A Literature Review of Gender-Based Violence in Developing Countries. 2003.

[19]. Pinheiro PS. Violence against children. ATAR Roto Presse SA. 2006.

[20]. Ludger Jungnitz, Hans-Joachim Lenz DRP, Dr. Henry Puhe WW. Violence against men. Men’s experiences of interpersonal violence in Germany – Results of the pilot study –. 2005;

[21]. Kisanga F. Child sexual abuse in urban Tanzania: Possibilities and barriers for prevention [Internet]. 2012. Available from: http://umu.diva-portal.org/

[22]. Pereznieto P, Montes A, Routier S, Langston L. The costs and economic impact of violence against children. 2014.

[23]. Grotpeter J, Menard S, Gianola D, O’Neal M. Sexual Violence: Longitudinal, multigenerational evidence from the National Youth Survey. 2008;1–86.

Abstract:

Introduction: Vision helps to perceive details of surroundings and regarded as the most important tool for learning for schoolchildren. World Health Organization (WHO) has prioritized vision screening in schools to decrease the burden of visual impairment (VI) in children. Any change in vision can be identified by schoolteachers when a child has difficulty in seeing the black board and reading books.

Aim: This study is aimed to see if visual screening training to schoolteachers can effectively be used to detect VI in children.

Material & Methods: Visual screening of 1134 eyes of 567 students was done by both the investigator and school teachers and results were formulated and compared. There was no difference in result in 66.31 % eyes. Investigator recorded better visual acuity (VA)+ with a 1-line difference in 14.55% eyes and two lines difference 3.35% eyes. Whereas, teachers recorded one-line better VA in 12.79% eyes and two lines better VA in 3% eyes.

Result: Out of 578 students from the three different schools of Allahabad district, from class 3 to 6, majority (267) belonged to school 3, whereas school 1 had the least (142) number of students.

Conclusion: The present study has identified the role of teachers as visual screeners in schools. The procedure is cost effective and require only visual screening training to the schoolteachers, so they can be used effectively for early detection of reduced vision in schoolchildren.

Keywords: Visual screening, health screening, visual impairment, schoolteachers, schoolchildren.

References:

[1]  Census of India. District Census Handbook, Allahabad (2011). Census of India 2011. Directorate of Census Operations, Uttar Pradesh. https://www.census2011.co.in/census/district/546-allahabad.html

[2]  Dandona R and Dandona L. Refractive error blindness. Bull World Health Organ. 2001; 79: 237–243.

[3]  Dandona R, Dandona L, Naduvilath TJ, et al. Refractive errors in an urban population in southern India: The Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1999; 40: 2810–2818.

[4]  Gene-Sampedro A, Gene-Morales A, Gené-Morales J, Bueno-Gimeno I and Oliver-Huerta D. Visual Health in The Classroom. Conference Paper. Proceedings of ICERI2016 Conference 14th-16th November 2016, Seville, Spain. Publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311363145 DOI: 10.21125/iceri.2016.1411

[5]  Hatch SW, John, McAlister WH, Block Sandra. Optometric Care within the Public Health Community. Cadyville, NY: Published; 2009.

[6]  He M, Huang W, Zheng Y, et al. Refractive error and visual impairment in school children in rural southern China. Ophthalmology 2007; 114: 374–382.

[7]  Health dialogue: A forum for the exchange of new and views on primary health care in India. Inveno.2006; 44: 1.

[8]  IAPB briefing paper: school health programme advocacy paper. London: International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness; 2011. Available from: http://www.iapb.org/sites/iapb.org/files/School%20Health%20Programme%20Advocacy%20Paper%20BP.pdf [cited 2016 Jan 17].

[9]  Jose R, Sachdeva S. School eye screening and the National program for Control of Blindness. Indian Pediatrics. 2009; 46: 205-08.

[10]   Latorre-Arteaga S, Gil-Gonzalez D, Enciso O, et al. Reducing visual deficits caused by refractive errors in school and preschool children: results of a pilot school program in the Andean region of Apurimac, Peru. Glob Health Action 2014; 7: 22656.

[11]   Limburg H, Vaidyanathan K, Dalal HP. Cost-effective screening of school children for refractive errors. World Health Forum 1995; 160: 173-178.

[12]   Manjunatha S N and Krishnaswamy R. Effectiveness of training teachers in vision screening of school children supported by foundation for the prevention of disability. Annals of Community Health 2016; l4 (2): 35-39.

[13]   Marsden J, Stevens S and Ebri A. How to measure distance visual acuity. Community Eye Health. 2014; 27(85): 16. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4069781/

[14]   Minto H and Imran B. Low vision Devices and training. Community Eye Health Journal. 2004 17(49): 6-7.

[15]   Mohammad A.M. Finding children who are blind. Community Eye Health Journal 2007; 20(62) 30-31.

[16]   Pastorino N, Penerini Y. Programa de detección de déficit de la agudeza visual en escolares sin patología ocular aparente." Archivos Argentinos de Pediatría (Buenos Aires) 96.4 (1998): 236.

[17]   Paudel P, Kovai V, Naduvilath T, Phuong H T, Ho S M & Giap N V. Validity of Teacher-Based Vision Screening and Factors Associated with the Accuracy of Vision Screening in Vietnamese Children. Ophthalmic Epidemiology 2016; 23(1): 63-68.

[18]   Pizzarello L, Abiose A, Ffytche T, et al. VISION 2020: The Right to Sight: a global initiative to eliminate avoidable blindness. Arch Ophthalmol 2004; 122: 615–620.

[19]   Priya, A., Veena, K., Thulasiraj, R., Fredrick, M., Venkatesh, R., Sengupta, S., & Bassett, K."ision Screening by Teachers in Southern Indian Schools: Testing a New All Class Teacher” Model. Ophthalmic epidemiology 2015; 22(1): 60-65.

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Abstract:

Most global estimates indicate that more than 1 million children a year die from acute measles. The actual number of deaths may, however, be considerably higher than this. In addition, the impact of delayed mortality as a result of measles infection is only now being realized. Many months after they contract measles, children continue to experience higher levels of mortality and morbidity than those who do not. Immunization of children against measles therefore prevents mortality and morbidity not only during the acute phase but also during subsequent months. The impact of measles immunization programmes may therefore have generally been underestimated. The effects of measles infection on children during the early months of life are more damaging than those experienced by older children. Children should therefore be immunized against measles as early in life as possible, given the limitations of existing vaccines.

As per DHIS, measles coverage amongst children below one year achieved in the first 10 months of 2018 is 56%. This is slightly lower of what was reported in previous years (going back to 2015, when CUAMM started working in Rumbek East) In a context as South Sudan, where several households live far from the nearest Health Facilities and are used to nomadic habits, it is common for children to access EPI services later than the regular immunization schedule, which stipulates getting vaccinated against measles after the first birthday. However, even merging U1 and U2 vaccinated children, the coverage of U5 population remains extremely low, not surpassing 30%.

Keywords: Expanded programme on Immunization, Vaccinated, Children Under five, measles coverage, Rumbek East, Western Lake state.

References:

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Abstract:

Background: Effective hand hygiene is essential for reducing healthcare associated infections. However, compliance of healthcare workers to hand hygiene guidelines are reportedly poor. It is important therefore to instill adequate knowledge and good attitudes and practices at the time of primary training of the healthcare workers. The aim of the study was to assess hand hygiene practices among healthcare workers in Infectious Diseases Hospital Kano, Nigeria. It was hoped that the study would benefit all health care workers through making recommendations aimed at improving hand hygiene compliance.

Methods: Quantitative, Cross-sectional study, using a self-administered Questionnaire to collect data on 260 participants. The results were analyzed using SPSS version 24.0.

Results: The result shows that 260 participants responded to the questionnaire. The majority of participants had good knowledge of hand hygiene and younger participants practiced hand hygiene more than older ones (p<.05).

Conclusion: The study highlighted the practices of hand hygiene among health care workers and the status of hand hygiene resources in the hospital which have a negative impact on hand hygiene practices demonstrated that compliance with hand hygiene compliance among health care workers remains unacceptably low, despite the irrefutable scientific evidence that hands are the most common vehicle for transmission of pathogens. A hospital-wide awareness program aiming at healthcare workers and adoption of alcohol-based hand rubs at the point of care can help improve compliance to hand hygiene.

Keywords: Hand hygiene, Health care workers, Hand hygiene practices, Health care associated infection, Resource.

References:

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Abstract:

Background: Treatment adherence is critical in the management of patients receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART).

Objective: To investigate determinant of treatment adherence and health-related outcomes after ART initiation in Windhoek, Namibia.

Methods: We used data from retrospective cohort from January 2010 to December 2015. We defined ART adherence at 95%, while non-adherence at <95% . We examined two outcomes: viral suppression and body weight at 6 and 12 months.. We then investigated the relationship between patient individual outcomes and treatment adherence. We applied multivariate binary and multinomial logistic regression models to examine the determinants of ART adherence and outcomes.

Results: Of 943 patients on ART, 58.9% were female, 82.1% aged between 25 to 49 years old and 86.6% ever married. Viral suppression at 6 months (p<0.000), and 12 months (p<0.000), and patients’ body weight at 6 months (p = 0.009) were significant more pronounced with ART adherence.. Regarding determinants of ART adherence, the results showed age between 25 and 29 years, and married was associated with higher adherence (OR=1.94, CI: 1.12-3.14). Patients at WHO clinical stage-I were more likely to adhere to treatment (OR=1.28, 95% CI: 1.01-1.73), while those at clinical stage-II were less likely (OR=0.41, 95% CI: 0.18-0.91, p-value = 0.028).

Conclusion: ART adherence leads to better outcomes.. Both demographic and clinical factors were associated with ART adherence. Future research should consider evaluating the effect of adherence to an extended coverage of clinics, and allow collecting more detailed factors that are associated with treatment adherence.

Keywords: HIV; Antiretroviral Therapy; ART adherence; viral suppression; multinomial logistic regression.

References:

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[2].Fonsah JY, Njamnshi AK, Kouanfack C, Qiu F, Njamnshi DM, Tagny CT, et al. (2017) Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) in Yaoundé-Cameroon: Association with Opportunistic Infections, Depression, ART Regimen and Side Effects. PLoS ONE 12(1): e0170893. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170893.

[3].Heestermans et al. (2016) Determinants of adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV-positive adults in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. BMJ Glob Health 2016; 1: e000125. Doi: 10.1136/bmjgh-2016-000125.

[4].Hirsch-Moverman Y, Daftary A, Yuengling KA, et al. Using mHealth for HIV/TB Treatment Support in Lesotho: Enhancing Patient–Provider Communication in the START Study. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 2017;74(Suppl 1):S37-S43. doi:10.1097/QAI.0000000000001202.

[5].Johnson MO, Dilworth SE, Taylor JM, Darbes LA, Comfort ML, Neilands TB. Primary Relationships, HIV Treatment Adherence, and Virologic Control. AIDS and behavior. 2012;16(6):1511-1521. doi:10.1007/s10461-011-0021-0.

[6].Ketema AK, Weret ZS. Assessment of adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy and associated factors among people living with HIV at Debrebrihan Referral Hospital and Health Center, Northeast Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. HIV/AIDS - Research and Palliative Care, 2015:7:75—81.

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[9].Mathes T, Jaschinski T, Pieper D. Adherence influencing factors – a systematic review of systematic reviews. Archives of Public Health. 2014;72:37. doi:10.1186/2049-3258-72-37.

[10]. Nachega JB, Knowlton AR, Deluca A, Schoeman JH, Watkinson L, Efron A, Chaisson RE, Maartens G.Treatment supporter to improve adherence to antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected South African adults. A qualitative study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006 Dec 1;43 Suppl 1:S127-33.

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Abstract:

Background: Namibia enrolled 93% of HIV patients into ART programme.

Objectives: To evaluate adherence and viral load completion accomplishments after ART initiation.

Methods: Retrospective cohort study using quantitative method. SPSS was used to analyze the data. Three sets of analyses reported. First compare the age, sex, CD4 and adherence to ART. Then patients with ≥95% adherence to those <95% and viral suppression at 6 and 12 months.

Results: About 69% adhered to treatment at least 95%. Of the 614 patients with viral load records, 73.3% (n=450) had viral suppression at 6 months. At 12 months, a total of 518 with viral load records,85.9% had viral suppression. Among the patients with adherence of at least 95% at six months, 75.2% had viral suppression. At 12 months, 89.4% of patients who adhered at least 95% of ART had viral suppression.

In multivariate binary regression, the study revealed that those who adhered more than 95%, were 1.65 times more likely to suppress the virus compared to those who did not (p=0.029). The results further showed that having CD4 > 200 at ART initiation was likely to be associated with viral suppression (OR=1.55, 95% CI 1.03-2.33).

Conclusions: The adherence to ART, viral load accomplishments, viral suppression did not reach the expected outcomes, targets set by UNAIDS. Although, close to 90% of patients at 12 months showed viral suppression, the number of patients checked for viral load were far from 90% of patients (about 54.5%) ever started on ART.

Keywords: HIV; Antiretroviral Therapy; ART adherence; viral load completion accomplishments, viral suppression, UNAIDS targets.

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Abstract:

Studies from sub-Saharan Africa have highlighted significant challenges in providing antiretroviral therapy (ART) to HIV positive Infants. In these studies, just 24% of HIV positive children are on treatment and in Cameroon Just 18% (UNAIDS, 2017), there are still gaps involved in treatment of these infants. This study aimed at evaluating the treatment gaps and identifying the health care system factors influencing the treatment gaps among HIV-positive infants in the Centre Region of Cameroon. The study was an observational study in which interviews were done in health facilities. Results obtained showed that the main factors that are influencing treatment gaps are occasional stock outs of ARVs and Patients who still find it difficult to accept their status. The factors influencing treatment gabs among HIV-infected infants did not show any difference between rural and urban areas (p=0.204). The main recommendation from this study is that health workers should be trained on Supply chain management.

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Abstract:

Eye-health seeking behavioural intentions of commercial drivers is of immense concern considering that driving requires accurate vision because poor vision could result in fatal road accidents. This study was guided by the Information-Motivation-Behavioural-skills-model as a theoretical underpinning to evaluate the impact of eye-health motivational-counselling intervention programme on eye-health seeking behavioural intentions and driving outcomes among commercial drivers in Ikeja local Government Area of Lagos State, Nigeria.

Method: This study was a quasi-experimental design involving three major motor parks in Lagos State. Two interventions and a control group with 35 commercial drivers who consented to participate in the study were selected for each group. The designed intervention was based on a previous educational diagnosis of observed deficiencies of Eye-Health Seeking Behavioural-Intentions of commercial vehicle drivers and implemented for twelve-weeks with a control. Validated structured questionnaire, was employed for data collection. Mean scores of major variables were compared for baseline and follow-up of primary and secondary outcome measures using independent-samples t-Test and ANOVA at 5% level of significance.

Results: Age-range of drivers was 18-60 years. There was no significant difference for major-variables in the study for all groups at baseline (p>0.05). At follow up, there was significant difference between intervention group two and group one for information (17.18±3.00 and 9.70±5.38; p<0.001), Motivation (33.81±6.55 and 31.33±3.79; p<0.001), Behavioural Skills (10.82±3.22 and 5.61±3.02; p<0.001), and Eye-Health Seeking Intentions and Driving Outcomes (22.94±6.88 and 19.52±6.06; p>0.05).

Conclusion: The eye-health educational interventions with motivational-counselling showed more prospects of influencing positive behavioural change on eye-health seeking behaviour among commercial drivers. It is recommended that motivational-counselling be incorporated into driver’s education and strategies for effective management of eye-health and safe-driving in Nigeria.

Keywords: Eye-Health-seeking, Health-Education, Motivational-Counselling, Information-Motivation-Behavioural -skills, Commercial-Drivers.

References:

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Abstract:

Introduction: Globally, Diabetes mellitus is reckoned a disease of major public health concern. It is a key risk factor for heart failure, stroke and coronary artery disease. Diabetes contributes significantly to global morbidity and mortality, with more impact in developing countries such as Nigeria. In Nigeria, various studies have reported the prevalence of diabetes to vary across different zones of the country with some reporting an increasing prevalence in rural communities.

Objectives: 1. To determine the prevalence of diabetes in rural communities of Abuja, FCT Nigeria. 2. To determine the awareness of diabetes in rural communities of Abuja. Methodology:

A community-based cross-sectional study conducted in 2017 in selected communities of Abuja using a multi-stage sampling technique to sample 408 adult participants. Interviewer administered questionnaire was used to collect data and Glucometer used for blood sugar measurements following recommended guidelines while SPSS 20.0 version was used for data analysis. Univariate analysis was performed for Blood Sugar level while multivariate analyses were done to ascertain relationship of the various socio-demographic characteristics to diabetes. Results were considered significant at p-value < 0.05.

Results: The prevalence of 4.4% was recorded for diabetes. Female sex and age 45 years and above, were independent predictors of diabetes in these group with appreciable awareness of the condition.

Conclusion: The study recorded an increased prevalence of diabetes in rural communities of Abuja. This calls for intensive program directed at controlling diabetes among the rural populace.

Keywords: Diabetes, prevalence, awareness, rural communities, Abuja.

References:

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[16]. Omobuwa O & Alebiosu O.C. (2014). Awareness of diabetes amongst undergraduates in a Nigerian University, South West Nigeria. Sahel Medical Journal. 17: 29-33.

[17]. Sabir A, Ohwovoriole A, Isezuo S, Fasnmade O, Abubakar S, Iwuala S. (2013). Type 2 diabetes mellitus and its risk factors among rural Fulanis of northern Nigeria. Annals of African Medicine; 12(4): 219 – 22.

[18]. Sabir A. A., Balarae S., Sani A.A., Isezuo S.A., Bello K.S., Jimo S.S. (2017). Prevalence of Diabetes Mellitus and risks factors among the suburban population of Northwest Nigeria. Sahel Medical Journal. 20: 168-72.

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Abstract:

Background: Patient safety is a discipline that emphasizes safety in health care through the prevention, reduction, reporting, and analysis of medical error that often leads to adverse effects. Hospitalized patients face safety issues from different dimensions among those medication safety, infection prevention and quality of nursing care are most important once.

Objective: The main objective of this study was to assess patient safety related to medication safety, infection prevention and quality of care and to explore efforts made towards controlling patient safety efforts among Addis Ababa regional hospitals, 2018

Methods: A qualitative study was conducted to assess patient safety among Addis Ababa regional Hospitals in terms of medication safety, infection prevention and quality of nursing care. Twelve interviews were conducted by principal investigator three interviews in each hospital on purposefully selected health care staffs representing the hospitals pharmacies, infection prevention team members and Head Nurses of inpatient wards on October, 2018 over a one-month period. Interviews were recorded, transcribed and results were summarized based on topics.

Results and conclusions: Studies in Ethiopia showed that Patient safety related to Medication safety, infection prevention and Nursing care quality is not encouraging but still effective monitoring efforts aren't in practice among Addis Ababa regional hospitals even though recommended by the EHRIG (Ethiopian hospital reform implementation guideline, 2010).

Keywords: patient safety, medication safety, infection prevention, quality care.

References:

[1].     Alemayehu, T., Worku, A., & Assefa, N. (2018). Knowledge and practice of healthcare workers about standard precaution: Special emphasis on medical waste management in Ethiopia. 11.

[2].     Ali, S., Birhane, M., Bekele, S., Kibru, G., Teshager, L., Yilma, Y., … Gudina, E. K. (2018). Healthcare associated infection and its risk factors among patients admitted to a tertiary hospital in Ethiopia: longitudinal study. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-017-0298-5.

[3].     Angamo, M. T., Curtain, C. M., Chalmers, L., Yilma, D., & Bereznicki, L. (2017). Predictors of adverse drug reaction-related hospitalisation in Southwest Ethiopia: A prospective cross-sectional study. PLOS ONE, 12(10), e0186631. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186631.

[4].     Baraki, Z., Girmay, F., Kidanu, K., Gerensea, H., Gezehgne, D., & Teklay, H. (2017). A cross sectional study on nursing process implementation and associated factors among nurses working in selected hospitals of Central and Northwest zones, Tigray Region, Ethiopia. BMC Nursing, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-017-0248-9.

[5].     Bereded, D. T., Salih, M. H., & Abebe, A. E. (2018). Prevalence and risk factors of pressure ulcer in hospitalized adult patients; a single center study from Ethiopia. BMC Research Notes, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-018-3948-7.

[6].     Berehe, T. T., Bekele, G. E., Yimer, Y. S., & Lozza, T. Z. (2018). Assessment of client’s satisfaction with outpatient services at Yekatit 12 Hospital Medical College, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. BMC Research Notes, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-018-3603-3.

[7].     Dedefo, M. G., Mitike, A. H., & Angamo, M. T. (2016). Incidence and determinants of medication errors and adverse drug events among hospitalized children in West Ethiopia. BMC Pediatrics, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-016-0619-5.

[8].     Eshetie, T. C., Hailemeskel, B., Mekonnen, N., Paulos, G., Mekonnen, A. B., & Girma, T. (2015). Adverse drug events in hospitalized children at Ethiopian University Hospital: a prospective observational study. BMC Pediatrics, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-015-0401-0.

[9].     Feleke, S. A., Mulatu, M. A., & Yesmaw, Y. S. (2015). Medication administration error: magnitude and associated factors among nurses in Ethiopia. BMC Nursing, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-015-0099-1.

[10]. Kolola, T., & Gezahegn, T. (2017). A twenty-four-hour observational study of hand hygiene compliance among health-care workers in Debre Berhan referral hospital, Ethiopia. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-017-0268-y.

[11]. Legesse Laloto, T., Hiko Gemeda, D., & Abdella, S. H. (2017). Incidence and predictors of surgical site infection in Ethiopia: prospective cohort. BMC Infectious Diseases, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-016-2167-x.

[12]. Miskir, Y., & Emishaw, S. (2018). Determinants of Nursing Process Implementation in North East Ethiopia: Cross-Sectional Study. Nursing Research and Practice, 2018, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7940854.

[13]. Sada, O., Melkie, A., & Shibeshi, W. (2015). Medication prescribing errors in the medical intensive care unit of Tikur Anbessa Specialized Hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. BMC Research Notes, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-015-1435-y.

[14]. Sharew, N. T., Bizuneh, H. T., Assefa, H. K., & Habtewold, T. D. (2018). Investigating admitted patients’ satisfaction with nursing care at Debre Berhan Referral Hospital in Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 8(5), e021107. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-021107.

[15]. Surur, A. S., Teni, F. S., Girmay, G., Moges, E., Tesfa, M., & Abraha, M. (2015). Satisfaction of clients with the services of an outpatient pharmacy at a university hospital in northwestern Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. BMC Health Services Research, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-015-0900-6.

[16]. Woldie, M., Agalu, Ayele, & Bedada. (2011). Medication prescribing errors in the intensive care unit of Jimma University Specialized Hospital, Southwest Ethiopia. Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 377. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S24671.

[17]. Zeleke, A., Chanie, T., & Woldie, M. (2014). Medication prescribing errors and associated factors at the pediatric wards of Dessie Referral Hospital, Northeast Ethiopia. International Archives of Medicine, 7(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/1755-7682-7-18.

Abstract:

Eye-health is an important indicator of quality of life. Impairment of visual acuity is considered a great loss of function for those whose vocation depends greatly on excellent visual function such as professional drivers among others. This study was designed to conduct an educational diagnosis of Eye-Health Seeking Behavioural-Intentions of commercial vehicle drivers in Ikeja, Nigeria. Findings from this study would inform a follow-up intervention to strengthen any inadequacies.

Method. A cross-sectional study aimed to determine adequacy of factors involved in Eye-Health Seeking Behavioural-Intentions of commercial vehicle drivers in Ikeja, Nigeria was implemented on 103 drivers who were purposively selected following consent to participate after ethical approvals. Instrument developed measured Information-Adequacy about eye-health on 20-point, Reinforcing-Enabling Factors on 60-point scale and Eye-Health Seeking Behaviour of participants on 48-point scale. Data collected were analysed using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 20 and transformed to interval scales as means and standard deviations.

Results. Mean age of participants was 50.10±7.70 years and 89.3% claimed to have received formal education. Majority (89.3%) reported driving with officially issued commercial driver’s licence while 72.8% reported haven driven for over 10 years. Results for information-adequacy was 8.77±3.80, while scores for reinforcing and enabling factors involved in eye-health seeking was 20.12±5.27 and 5.18±3.05 respectively. Participants eye-health seeking and driving outcomes reported a score of 30.96±9.34.

Conclusion. There was observed inadequate eye-health seeking and driving outcomes, low information-Adequacy, poor reinforcing and enabling factors among these commercial drivers. Therefore, this study recommends the need for eye-health motivational and counselling intervention programme to improve eye-health seeking behaviour among commercial drivers.

Keywords: Eye-Health Seeking, Information-Adequacy, Reinforcing Factors, Enabling Factors, Safe-Driving.

References:

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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23379324.

Abstract:

Background: From 1st January to 11th November 2018, a total of 3016 suspected cases of Lasa fever was reported from 22 states but 4 states including Ebonyi state remained in the active phase. Onuenyim Agbaja in Izzi LGA has been in the eye of the storm with all confirmed cases ending in mortality.

Objective: To assess the role of civil sectors in the control of Lassa fever in Onuenyim Village.

Methodology: This was a descriptive cross-sectional study with data collected using a Likert scale questionnaire rated 1-5 from most negative (low) to most positive (high) responses with a mean value above 3.5 regarded as positive (high)

Results: A total of 250 respondents participated in the study which showed that the civil sectors played active role in the control of Lassa fever through advocacy with a mean rating (MNR) of 4.7, resource mobilization with MNR of 4.4 and information sharing and dissemination with MNR of 4.4 These activities had positive effect on the people as shown by an MNR of 3.6. However, the respondents were not sure they knew all they were supposed to know about Lassa fever as shown by an MNR of 1.5.

Conclusion/Recommendations: There is great potential for improving public health through systematic collaboration between governments and civil society. This study tried to lay foundation on the role of the civil sectors in the control of Lassa fever but there is need to collect more systematic evidence on the role of civil sectors in the control of Lassa fever, to improve our knowledge.

Major players in the health industry including government at all levels need to work with civil society for the social dimensions of health actions for infectious disease control especially the emerging and re-emerging infections like Lassa fever.

Keywords: Assessment, Roles, Civil sectors, Control, Lassa fever.

References:

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Abstract:

Background: Improving patient safety highly depends on achieving a culture that supports health workers to report their errors without the fear of punishment. Despite policy emphasis on patient safety in Ethiopia only little studies examine the perception of health workers on patient safety.

Objective: The main objective of this study was to assess the magnitude of patient safety culture and associated factors among health workers in Addis Ababa regional hospitals.

Methods: Facility based cross sectional study was conducted to assess the magnitude of patient safety culture and associated factors.

Results: Magnitude of patient safety culture among health workers in Addis Ababa regional hospitals was 44% CI [42.75,45.36]. Among the 12 dimensions of patient safety " Team work with in Units " (74.78%) was the highest. The least score was for the dimension of " Nonpunitive Response to Errors " (28.70). Five of the 12 dimensions scored above 50%. Only 35 % of respondents gave very good and excellent grades and only 44% of respondents reported at least one event in the past 12 months.

Conclusion: Magnitude of patient safety culture for regional hospitals in Addis Ababa was 44 % which is below the acceptable average value (50%), which requires responsible parties’ attention.

Keywords: Patient safety, Advert events, patient safety culture.

References:

      Ali, S., Birhane, M., Bekele, S., Kibru, G., Teshager, L., Yilma, Y., … Gudina, E. K. (2018). Healthcare associated infection and its risk factors among patients admitted to a tertiary hospital in Ethiopia: longitudinal study. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-017-0298-5.

[2].          Angamo, M. T., Curtain, C. M., Chalmers, L., Yilma, D., & Bereznicki, L. (2017). Predictors of adverse drug reaction-related hospitalisation in Southwest Ethiopia: A prospective cross-sectional study. PLOS ONE, 12(10), e0186631. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186631.

[3].          Aveling, E.-L., Kayonga, Y., Nega, A., & Dixon-Woods, M. (2015). Why is patient safety so hard in low-income countries? A qualitative study of healthcare workers’ views in two African hospitals. Globalization and Health, 11(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-015-0096-x.

[4].          Cheikh, A. B., Bouafia, N., Mahjoub, M., Ezzi, O., Nouira, A., & Njah, M. (2016). Patient’s safety culture among Tunisian healthcare workers: results of a cross sectional study in university hospital. Pan African Medical Journal, 24. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2016.24.299.8466.

[5].          El-Jardali, F., Sheikh, F., Garcia, N. A., Jamal, D., & Abdo, A. (2014). Patient safety culture in a large teaching hospital in Riyadh: baseline assessment, comparative analysis and opportunities for improvement. BMC Health Services Research, 14(1), 122.

[6].          Elmontsri, M., Almashrafi, A., Banarsee, R., & Majeed, A. (2017). Status of patient safety culture in Arab countries: a systematic review. BMJ Open, 7(2), e013487.

[7].          Gallego, B., Westbrook, M. T., Dunn, A. G., & Braithwaite, J. (2012). Investigating patient safety culture across a health system: multilevel modelling of differences associated with service types and staff demographics. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 24(4), 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzs028.

[8].          Gehring, K., Schwappach, D. L. B., Battaglia, M., Buff, R., Huber, F., Sauter, P., & Wieser, M. (2013). Safety climate and its association with office type and team involvement in primary care. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 25(4), 394–402. https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzt036.

[9].          Hospital servey on patient safety culture users guide.pdf. (n.d.).

[10]. Mahmoud Mahran, S. (2016). Patient Safety Culture and Application of Medication Safety Rules as Perceived by Nurses. American Journal of Nursing Science, 5(2), 52. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajns.20160502.13.

[11]. Mayeng, L. M., & Wolvaardt, J. E. (2015). Patient safety culture in a district hospital in South Africa: An issue of quality. Curationis, 38(1). https://doi.org/10.4102/curationis.v38i1.1518.

[12]. Mekonnen, A. B., McLachlan, A. J., Brien, J. E., Mekonnen, D., & Abay, Z. (2017). Hospital survey on patient safety culture in Ethiopian public hospitals: a cross-sectional study. Safety in Health, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40886-017-0062-9.

[13]. R, O., & Cl, S. (2016). Compliance to Intraoperative Basic Hygiene and Patient Safety Culture in Mozambique. Journal of Prevention and Infection Control, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.21767/2471-9668.100013.

[14]. Sada, O., Melkie, A., & Shibeshi, W. (2015). Medication prescribing errors in the medical intensive care unit of Tikur Anbessa Specialized Hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. BMC Research Notes, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-015-1435-y.

[15]. Viana De Lima Neto, A., Da Fonseca Silva, M., Gomes De Medeiros, S., Lima Barbosa, M., De Oliveira Salvado, P. T. C., & Pereira Santos, V. E. (2017). Patient Safety Culture In Health Organizations: Scoping Review. International Archives of Medicine, 10. https://doi.org/10.3823/2344.

[16]. Wagner, C., Smits, M., Sorra, J., & Huang, C. C. (2013). Assessing patient safety culture in hospitals across countries. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 25(3), 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzt024.

[17]. Wami, S. D., Demssie, A. F., Wassie, M. M., & Ahmed, A. N. (2016). Patient safety culture and associated factors: A quantitative and qualitative study of healthcare workers’ view in Jimma zone Hospitals, Southwest Ethiopia. BMC Health Services Research, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-016-1757-z.

[18]. Woldie, M., Agalu, Ayele, & Bedada. (2011). Medication prescribing errors in the intensive care unit of Jimma University Specialized Hospital, Southwest Ethiopia. Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 377. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S24671.

[19]. Zeleke, A., Chanie, T., & Woldie, M. (2014). Medication prescribing errors and associated factors at the pediatric wards of Dessie Referral Hospital, Northeast Ethiopia. International Archives of Medicine, 7(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/1755-7682-7-18.

Abstract:

The objective of this study was to ascertain the pattern and reliability of self-diagnosis and self-medication with antimalarial drugs. The sample size was 470 comprising 264 men and 206 women. There is a significant difference between the screening results for men and for women (P=0.01186). 71.49% of participants purchasing antimalarial drugs for self-medication in the study area had no parasite antigen in their blood stream. Self-medication practices with antimalarial drugs was found to be more prevalent in the age group 31-40, which accounted for 171 (36.36 %) of participants. Individuals >60 years of age were the least involved in the practice of self-medication practice with antimalarial drugs. Age was found to be significantly associated with self-medication practices with antimalarial drugs (P=0.028156). More single individuals were engaged in the practice of self-medication with anti-malarial drugs 235(50%) as compared to married participants 206(43.83%). The results show that individuals with formal education were the most engaged in self -medication practices with anti-malarial drug as tertiary educated participants accounted for 257(54.68%) as compared with individuals with no formal education (53 or 11.28%). The level of accuracy of self–diagnosis for malaria was higher in women 30.58% as compared to men (21.97%). The precision of self-diagnosis was also highest among participants aged > 60(41.82%) while the lowest was level of accuracy was recorded among participants aged 18-30(15.14%). Based on the level of education, the accuracy of malaria diagnosis was higher in tertiary educated participants (29.18%) and lowest among participants with no formal education (15.09%).

Keywords: Antimalaria, Self-Medication, Malaria, Prevalence, Self-Diagnosis.

References:

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[8].Diallo, N., Akweongo, P., Maya, E., Aikins, M., & Sarfo, B. (2017). Burden of malaria in mobile populations in the Greater Accra region, Ghana: a cross-sectional study. Malaria journal, 16(1), 109.

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[13]. Houmsou, R. S., Amuta, E. U., Sar, T. T., & Adagba, A. H. (2011). Malarial infection among patients attending a Nigerian semi-urban based hospital and performance of HRP-2 pf Rapid diagnostic Test (RDT) in screening clinical cases of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Translational Biomedicine.

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Abstract:

Objective: To investigate the risk factors and impact of the introduction of XPERT MTB/RIF test on the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) in presumptive cases in a General Hospital in Nigeria.

Design and setting: A retrospective study that examines the record of the hospital, from January, 2015 to December, 2017. A logistic regression analysis was utilized to identify the associated factors.

Results: There were total of 753 TB cases out of a total of 3639 people investigated. The rate of TB was 0.207. The multivariable regression analysis revealed that TB was significantly associated with all age groups: 15 -24 years [odds ratio (OR) = 5.316, 95% CI: 3.299 – 8.566], 25-34 years (OR = 4.584 95% CI: 2.899 – 7.248), 35 -44 years (OR = 4.388, 95% CI: 2.765 - 6.964), 45-54 years (OR = 3.044 95% CI: 1.875 - 4.940), 55 -64 years (OR = 2.165, 95% CI: 1.273 - 3.681) and >64 years (OR = 2.135, 95% CI: 1.201 - 3.793).

HIV positivity (OR = 0.519, 95% CI: 0.411 – 0.655) and unknown HIV status (OR = 0.277, 95% CI: 0.197 – 0.390) and females, (OR = 0.437, 95% CI: 0.368-0.517), were less likely to have TB.

Conclusion: Age group 25-54 is an independent predictor of positive tuberculosis results in presumptive cases.

Keywords: Xpert MTB/RIF, tuberculosis, risk factors, Nigeria.

References:

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[4].     Dim, C., & Dim, N. (2013, Nov-Dec). Trends of tuberculosis prevalence and treatment outcome in an under-resourced setting: The case of Enugu state, South East Nigeria. Niger Med J. , 392-7. doi:10.4103/0300-1652.126292.

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[6].     Egbe, K., Ike, A., & Aleruchi, C. (2016). Prevalence of tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance among patients seeking medical care in Nasarawa State, North Central Nigeria. Science Journal of Public Health, 4(3), 214-218. doi:10.11648/j.sjph.20160403.18.

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Abstract:

The study illuminated the caring phenomenon within the provision of health services and the seek of care in Philippine public health. Using a qualitative approach, employing a hermeneutic-phenomenological design, specifically the Husserlian method for phenomenology a Gadamerian hermeneutics, this study was participated by 8 care providers and 8 recipients of care. It utilized generated themes from in-depth interviews which represented the current phenomena of Philippine public health being correlated with historical literatures and events to generate interpretation of what was found to be a colonial identity of care. Furthermore, the tangible manifestation of caring phenomenon in Philippine public health is built within the scaffold of a colonialism, lived and shared by the people through culture influencing and shaping today’s society in its identity as a Filipino and in public health as caring phenomenon occurs.

Keywords: Colonial Identity, Public Health, Caring.

References:

[1].     Abbah, M. (2017). Quora. Retrieved from Quora: https://www.quora.com/Why-does-the-Philippines-have-poor-healthcare-Theres-a-story-about-a-leading-hospital-trying-to-claim-property-at-far-less-than-its-value-to-pay-the-bill-of-a-deceased-patient-before-they-would--release-the-body

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Abstract:

Food hygiene includes all conditions and measures necessary to ensure the safety, suitability and wholesomeness of food at all stages of the food chain. The objective of this study was to ascertain the knowledge and practice of food hygiene among food vendors in Ihiagwa, Owerri-West L.G.A. A descriptive cross-sectional design was used in this study as a quantitative research approach. 221 food vendors were selected using the stratified sampling technique. Data was collected with the use of a questionnaire and also with observations of general hygiene and cleanliness. Data was captured in Excel sheet and imported into SPSS version 20.0 for analysis. The results of this study showed that most of the food vendors 99(44.5%) were between 30-39 years of age. Females recorded 166(75%) while males had 55(25%); 183(82.8%) reported that they have not attended any food hygiene training; only 28(12.7%) of the food vendors reported that they always cover their hair while serving food; 188(85.1%) reported that their food premises have not been visited by environmental health officers, only 51(23.1%) of the food vendors said that they go for routine medical examinations and 5(2.3%) said that well water was their main source of water supply. The age of the respondents showed a significant relationship with their knowledge of food hygiene (X²=15.53 at P=0.008). The Age, gender and educational status of the respondents all showed a significant relationship with their practice of food hygiene.

Keywords: hygiene, knowledge, practice, food, vendors, ihiagwa,

References:

[1].     Abdalla, M.A., Siham, E.S., Alian, Y.H., and Amel, O.B. (2008). Food Safety knowledge and practice of street food-vendors in Khartoum city, Sudan. Journal of Vertinary Science and Animal Husbandry, 47(2),126-136.

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Abstract:

Background: Lot Quality Assurance Survey Sampling (LQAS) is a survey use for estimation of Supplemental Immunization Activity (SIA) coverage (OPV percentage coverage). The survey is mostly conducted in high risk LGAs immediately after SIAs. This paper explored reasons why children were missed during LQAS after Polio Campaigns in Birnin Kudu LGA, Jigawa State of Nigeria in 2014. Method: This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted between January – April, 2015. Twenty-eight (28) parents whose children were found to be missed during LQAS in Birnin Kudu LGA after 2014 Polio campaign were purposively sampled to participate in the survey but only 24 parents were reached. Survey data were collected by a questionnaire which was applied face to face to parents of 24 children. Data analysis was carried out using descriptive statistics, mean, median, proportions. Findings: the result of the study revealed that children were missed due to the following reasons: 75% due to “child was not at home”, “child was too young for immunization” and “others” constitutes 8% each. “Child was sick” and “too many round” constitute (4%) each. Lowest were “religious belief”, “child was scarred”, “unhappy with the attitude of the vaccination team”, “team didn’t visit the house”, “Political differences”, “no pluses during the visit” and “unmet needs” having 0% each. The study concluded that the major reason why children were to be missed during 2014 LQAS in Birnin-Kudu LGA was as a result of “child not at home” which constitute 75%. Recommendation: Health Education: the government should put more effort in educating the populace about Polio vaccination; emphasize its importance, why it is frequently repeated, how polio hinders lifelong opportunities for their children. Immunization days should be uniform all over the nation so as to be able to capture those who travelled to another part of the country.

Keywords: Poliomyelitis, missed child, reasons for missed children, Lot Quality Assurance Sampling Survey.

References:

[1].     Babalola, S., &Aina, O. (2004). Community and systemic factors affecting the uptake of immunisation in Nigeria: A qualitative study in five state. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Health (National Report).

[2].     Centre for Disease Control. (2014a). What is Polio? Retrieve from https://www.cdc.gov/polio/about.

[3].     Centre for Disease Control. (2014b). Progress towards Poliomyelitis eradication - Nigeria. Abuja: Center for Disease Control.

[4].     Dawria, A., & Ahmed, M. H. (2015) Assessment of Expanded Program on Immunisation’s Activities in Jigawa State. International Journal of Healthcare Sciences, 2(2), 350 -353. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2611.9846.

[5].     Elisha, P. R. (2010) The politics of Polio in Northern Nigeria. Bloomington and Indiana, USA: Indiana University Press.

[6].     Food West Africa. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.food-westafrica.com/en/show-info/about-nigeria.html.

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[9].     Kareff, S. (2013) The case against Polio eradication. The Georgetown Undergraduate Journal of Health Sciences, 7(1), 26 – 35. Retrieved from https://blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/journal-of-health-sciences/issues-2/ vol-7-no-1-may-2013/the-case-against-polio-eradication.

[10]. Lanata, C.F, & Black, R. E. (1991). Lot quality assurance sampling techniques in health surveys in developing countries: advantages and current constraints. World Health Statistics Quarterly, 44(3), 133-9. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1949880.

[11]. Micheal, C. A., Ashenafi, S., Ogbuanu, I. U., Ohuabunwo, C., Sule, A., Corkum, M., …Mahoney, F. (2014). An evaluation of community perspectives and contributing factors to missed children during an oral polio vaccination campaign – Katsina State, Nigeria. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 210 (Suppl 1), 131-135. doi:  https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiu288.

[12]. Mohammed, A., Sabitu, K., Nguku, P., Abanida, E., Sheidu, S., Dalhat, M., …Suleiman, I. (2011). Characteristics of persons refusing oral polio vaccine during the immunization plus days – Sokoto, Nigeria 2011. The Pan African Medical Journal, 18(Suppl 1). Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4199787/.

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Abstract:

The issue of adolescent sexual and reproductive health concern is a growing global public health issue that has recently received both national and international attention. The study adopted a non-interventional cross-sectional study design, aimed at assessing gender differentials in sexual-reproductive risk exposures among high school students in the Ejisu-Juaben Municipality of Ghana. The study enrolled 820 participants using structured questionnaire as primary data collection tool and focus group discussion. The study key findings are; no statistically significant difference was observed for ever had boy/girlfriends for male (51.2%) and females (49%). Males (54%) and females (46%) ever had sexual intercourse, with no significant difference (p>0.005). Mean age in years of sexual debut was 15.02 for males and s 15.85 for females. Protection during sexual intercourse was 49% for males and versus 51% for females. Occurrence of pregnancy was 19.5% with 90.2% ending in abortion. Contraceptive use and family planning adoption were not statistically significant for males (58.0%) and females (42.0%) (p>0.005). Multiple sexual partner status was higher for males (54.2%) than females (30.5%). Anal or oral sex among males (60.5%) was more than females (39.5%). Males (68.0%) significantly reported higher involvement in masturbation than females (32.0%) (p<0.005). Same-sex relationship (homosexuality) was higher for males (57%) than females (43%) and was not significant (p>0.005). The study findings suggest inadequate reproductive health knowledge among students. Inclusion of sexual and reproductive health education in the curriculum of schools is essential.

Keywords: Gender, Students, Reproductive Risk, Ejisu-Juaben, Ghana.

References:

[1].     Ali, M.K., Robert J.M., Gwendolyn T. M. & Katherine C.B (2003). Reproductive Health Risk and Protective Factors among Unmarried Youth in Ghana International Family Planning Perspectives. Flight. 29, No. 1, pp. 14-24.

[2].     Appiah-Agyekum, N.N. (2014) Abortions in Ghana: experiences of university students. Health Science Journal. 8 (4).

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[5].     Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010a). 2009 National YRBS Data User’s Manual. ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/data/yrbs/2009/YRBS_2009_National_User_Guide.pdf.

[6].     Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010b). Youth Risk Behaviour Surveillance-United States, 2009. MMWR, 59(SS-5), 1-142.

[7].     Choudhury, S., Blakemore, S., & Charman, T. (2006). Social cognitive development during adolescence. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 1(3), 165-174.doi:10.1093/scan/nsl024.

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[11]. Morris, L., Warren, C. W., & Aral, S. O. (1993). Measuring adolescent sexual behaviours and related health outcomes. Public Health Reports, 108(1 Suppl), 31–36.

[12]. Navarro, C. M. (2013). Gender Differences in the Influence of Protective Factors, Risk Factors, and Health Risk Behaviours on HIV Risk Behaviours Among Youth in South Florida" (2013). FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 845. http://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/845.

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[16]. Smith, A.M., Rosenthal, D.A. & Reichler, H. (1996). High schoolers masturbatory practices: their relationship to sexual intercourse and personal characteristics. Psychol Rep. 1996; 79 (2):499-509.

[17]. Wondemagegn, M., Mulat, Y., Bayeh, A. (2014) Sexual behaviours and associated factors among students at Bahir Dar University: a cross-sectional study. Reproductive Health, 11:84 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4755-11-84.

[18]. Victora et al., 1997World Health Organization (1992). The prevention and management of Unsafe Abortion. Geneva: World Health Organisation. Retrieved from.

Abstract:

Knowledge on reproductive health issues is essential in the promotion of positive reproductive behaviours among adolescent. The Study utilised a non-interventional cross-sectional study design to assess knowledge, attitude and risk perception on sexual-reproductive behaviours among adolescents, particularly high school students in the Ejisu-Juaben Municipality of Ghana. The study enrolled 820 participants using structured questionnaire as primary data collection tool and focus group discussion. Level of knowledge on reproductive health and risk related issues were rated more than 50%. Correct responses to knowledge and risk perception questions areas are the folliwng; STI including HIV/AIDS cannot be avoided (42.0%), STI including HIV/AIDS go away without any medication (64.0%), only people who look sick can spread HIV/AIDS virus (73.0%), Teenage girl cannot get HIV from teenage boys who have had sex only a few times (62.2%), girls cannot get pregnant on sexual debut (61.0%), pregnancy can occur in mid-cycle (53.3%), no need of birth control method if a girl has sex once in a while (52.5%), urinating after sexual intercourse can prevent pregnancy (55.3%), a highly reliable method of avoiding pregnancy and STI/HIV is to use a condom (60.3%). Reproductive health knowledge and sexual-reproductive behaviours were not statistically significant (p>0.005), though sexual intercourse and non-protection on sexual debuts were significantly associated with reproductive health knowledge (p<0.005). Sexual -reproductive health education be incorporated into the curriculum of school, establishing health education department in all schools to promote positive health behaviours.

Keywords: Ghana, Ejisu-Juaben, Reproductive, Risk, Knowledge, Students.

References:

[1].     Ajuwon, A. J., Olaleye, A., Faromoju, B., & Ladipo, O. (2006). Sexual behaviour and experience of sexual coercion among secondary school students in three states in North Eastern Nigeria. BMC Public Health, 6, 310. http://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-6-310.

[2].     Bingenheimer, J. B., Asante, E., & Ahiadeke, C. (2015). Peer Influences on Sexual Activity among Adolescents in Ghana. Studies in Family Planning, 46(1), 1–19. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4465.2015.00012.x.

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[4].     Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010a). 2009 National YRBS Data User’s Manual. ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/data/yrbs/2009/YRBS_2009_National_User_Guide.pdf.

[5].     Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010b). Youth Risk Behaviour Surveillance-United States, 2009. MMWR, 59(SS-5), 1-142.

[6].     Chen, L., Jha, P., Stirling, B., Sgaier, S.K., Daid, T., Kaul, R... (2007). Sexual risk factors for HIV infection in early and advanced HIV epidemics in sub-Saharan Africa: systematic overview of 68 epidemiological studies. PLoS One. 2(10): e1001.

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[9].     Glover, E., Bannerman, A., Pence, B., Jones, H., Miller, R., Weiss, E., & Nerquaye-Tetteh, J. (2003). Sexual Health Experiences of Adolescents in Three Ghanaian Towns. International Family Planning Perspectives, 29(1), 32-40. doi: 10.2307/3180999.

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[15]. Latifnejad, R., Javadnoori, M., Hassanpoor, M. (2012). Importance of sexual health education for adolescent girls in Iran: a qualitative study. Iranian Journal of Obstetrics, Gynaecology & Infertility. 2012; 15:7–17.

[16]. Morris, L., Warren, C. W., & Aral, S. O. (1993). Measuring adolescent sexual behaviours and related health outcomes. Public Health Reports, 108(1 Suppl), 31–36.

[17]. Mulatu, A., Tefera, B., Tizta, T. & Muluwas, A. (2015). Risky Sexual behaviours and Associated Factors among High School Youth in Pawe Woreda Benishangul Gumuz Region, Science Journal of Clinical Medicine. Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 67-75. doi: 10.11648/j.sjcm.20150404.11.

[18]. Nagamabadi, K.M., Babazadeh, R., Shariati, M. & Mosavi, S.A. (2014). Iranian adolescent girls and reproductive health information and services: a qualitative study. Iranian Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology & Infertility: 17:9–18.

[19]. Rondini, S. & Krugu, J.K. (2009). Knowledge, attitude and practices study on reproductive health among secondary school students in Bolgatanga, upper east region, Ghana. Afr J Reprod Health, 13(4):51-66.

[20]. Smith, A.M., Rosenthal, D.A. & Reichler, H. (1996). High schoolers masturbatory practices: their relationship to sexual intercourse and personal characteristics. Psychol Rep. 1996; 79 (2):499-509.

[21]. Tanhaei, H.A., Ghasemi, Z. & Asadollahi, S. (2013). Sexual taboo and its’ affection factors (a case study of the youth in Tehran). Quarterly. The Sociology of the Youth Studies. 2013; 3:9–22.

[22]. Victora et al., 1997World Health Organization (1992). The prevention and management of Unsafe Abortion. Geneva: World Health Organisation. Retrieved from.

[23]. Zadeh, M.A. & Ahmad, A.Z. (2008). The co-occurrence of risky behaviours among high school adolescents in Tehran. Journal of Family Research. 2008; 4:87–100.